This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Copyright Permission Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Newell-Price, J. Articles by Grossman, A. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Newell-Price, J. Articles by Grossman, A.

The Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis of Cushing’s Syndrome and Pseudo-Cushing’s States

Department of Endocrinology, St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, West Smithfield, London, EC1A 7BE, United Kingdom

	Abstract

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 

I. Introduction

II. Definitions and Etiology

III. Diagnostic Overview

IV. Clinical Features

V. Biochemical Diagnosis of Cushing’s Syndrome

A. Cardinal features

B. Urinary free cortisol (UFC)

C. Low-dose dexamethasone testing

D. Circadian rhythm assessment

E. Cyclical Cushing’s syndrome

VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH-Independent Cushing’s Syndrome

VII. Differential Diagnosis of ACTH-Dependent Cushing’s Syndrome

A. Overview

B. Basal testing

C. Dynamic noninvasive testing

D. Invasive testing

VIII. Other Causes of Cushing’s Syndrome

IX. Imaging

A. Pituitary

B. Adrenal

C. Ectopic secretion

X. Differentiation from Pseudo-Cushing’s States

XI. Conclusions

	I. Introduction

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 
THREE quarters of a century have passed since Harvey Cushing’s original descriptions of the clinical syndrome characteristic of glucocorticoid excess (1, 2). Interest in Cushing’s syndrome, especially in recent years, continues to gain momentum from both a clinical and basic science viewpoint, as witnessed by the ever increasing literature on the subject. More than in any other area of clinical endocrinology, diagnosis, differential diagnosis, and management continue to challenge the physician and occasionally cause considerable controversy. This is reflected by our limited understanding, despite much study, of the biology of the possible causes. Recent advances, especially in molecular biology, have given some insight as to the basis of the biochemical tests that are in common clinical practice; yet in the majority of cases, diagnosis is an extremely pragmatic affair involving the utilization of diagnostic strategies that have been developed and validated over the last 30 yr or so. Cushing’s syndrome has been the subject of numerous original papers and reviews. Due to the relative rarity of the condition, many years of experience are required before a given diagnostic approach can be formally validated, this often being in the form of retrospective analyses. The last few years have seen the introduction of several new approaches and the validation of existing ones in larger series. It thus seems a pertinent time to review our current understanding, address areas of debate and, at the risk of further controversy, to suggest some diagnostic approaches.

It is our belief that the clinical spectrum of Cushing’s syndrome is shifting as this rare diagnosis is increasingly being considered by astute physicians in more common settings, such as the diabetic clinic. Indeed, recent work has suggested that up to 3–4% of individuals with poorly controlled diabetes mellitus with an obese phenotype may have Cushing’s syndrome (3). Therefore, our ability to make the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome is becoming an increasing challenge, since the pathological process of glucocorticoid excess is being considered at an earlier stage in its natural history. In this paper, we critically review the clinical features of the syndrome and the biochemical tests that confirm or refute clinical suspicion. There then follows a critique of the biochemical tests and imaging investigations employed in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome, with particular emphasis on more recent approaches, large-series validations and modifications of existing protocols. Finally, consideration is given to the vexed issue of the differentiation of Cushing’s syndrome from pseudo-Cushing’s states.

	II. Definitions and Etiology

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 
Endogenous Cushing’s syndrome is a clinical state resulting from prolonged, inappropriate exposure to excessive endogenous secretion of cortisol and hence excess circulating free cortisol, characterized by loss of the normal feedback mechanism of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis and the normal circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion (4). Other situations in which there is biochemical evidence of excess cortisol secretion, without the development of a ’Cushingoid state,’ however subtle, such as in the setting of a long period in the intensive care unit, will not be considered here. The etiology of Cushing’s syndrome may be excessive ACTH production from the pituitary gland, ectopic ACTH secretion by a nonpituitary tumor, or excessive autonomous secretion of cortisol from a hyperfunctioning adrenocortical tumor (5, 6, 7, 8, 9). Other than these broad ‘ACTH-dependent’ and ‘ACTH-independent’ categories, the syndrome may, in addition, be caused by ectopic CRH secretion (10, 11, 12), bilateral primary pigmented nodular adrenal hyperplasia and macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (13), the ectopic actions of gastric-inhibitory peptide or catecholamines (14, 15, 16), and other adrenal-dependent processes associated with adrenocortical hyperfunction such as McCune-Albright syndrome and Carney’s complex (13, 17) (Tables 1 and 2). Pseudo-Cushing’s states, which may have similar clinical presentations together with evidence of hypercortisolemia, may be caused by alcohol dependence (18, 19, 20, 21, 22) and depression (23, 24, 25, 26). It may also be necessary to differentiate Cushing’s syndrome from other clinical presentations with ‘Cushingoid’ features, such as cases of simple obesity in which some Cushingoid clinical features may be present (27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32). The incidence of pituitary-dependent Cushing’s disease and adrenal adenomas in women is 3 to 4 times that of men: since this is the most common form of Cushing’s syndrome, as a whole, therefore, women easily outnumber men (Table 1).

	III. Diagnostic Overview

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 
The clinical signs of Cushing’s syndrome are protean, providing the stimulus for further biochemical evaluation and imaging. The diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome must be established before any attempt at differential diagnosis, since the tests employed in the differential diagnosis may be misleading, or uninterpretable, unless there is biochemical confirmation of the hypercortisolemic state. This latter criterion is vital and applicable to all of the tests detailed below, since the reported sensitivity, specificity, and diagnostic accuracy are only valid during periods of active and sustained hypercortisolism. In some circumstances diagnosis may be relatively straightforward, while in others, and especially at times when the degree of hypercortisolism is only mild and variable, diagnosis and differential diagnosis may remain elusive.

	IV. Clinical Features

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 
Symptoms associated with hypercortisolemia include weight gain, lethargy, weakness, menstrual irregularities, loss of libido, depression, hirsutism, acne, purplish skin striae, and hyperpigmentation (6, 36, 37, 38). Associated problems such as diabetes mellitus or hypertension may also bring the patient to medical attention. The signs associated with Cushing’s syndrome are extremely varied and differ in severity (Table 3). Signs that differentiate Cushing’s syndrome from pseudo-Cushingoid states most reliably include the presence of proximal myopathy, easy bruising, and thinness and fragility of the skin (36, 37). In our experience signs such as buffalo hump, obesity, and hirsutism are poor discriminators. In the case of children, gain in weight associated with growth retardation are particularly prominent features that should alert clinical suspicion to the diagnosis (39, 40, 41, 42).

The original descriptions of the ‘overt’ ectopic ACTH syndrome reported the effects of high levels of ACTH and cortisol, usually of rapid onset and most often due to ACTH secretion from small-cell lung cancers (50). Symptoms include profound weakness as a direct result of high circulating levels of cortisol and associated hypokalemia, while there is often little weight gain and absence of classically Cushingoid appearance. Pigmentation frequently appears as a result of the high circulating levels of ACTH. In contrast, ACTH-secreting carcinoid tumors, most frequently bronchial in origin, may present with clinical features indistinguishable from pituitary-dependent or primary adrenal disease; this clinical situation is now referred to as the ‘occult’ ectopic ACTH syndrome (9). Thus, the clinical history and examination may be extremely helpful in differentiating between pituitary and ectopic causes in cases of ‘overt’ ectopic ACTH syndrome, whereas they have poor discriminating power in the ‘occult’ ectopic ACTH syndrome.

	V. Biochemical Diagnosis of Cushing’s Syndrome

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 
A. Cardinal features
The cardinal biochemical features of Cushing’s syndrome are excess endogenous integrated secretion of cortisol, loss of the normal feedback of the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA), and disturbance of the normal circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion. The biochemical tests that are used in the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome rely upon these parameters. In the investigation of Cushing’s syndrome, initial biochemical tests of high sensitivity should be employed, although the diagnosis may later be refuted by tests of higher specificity. This is an acceptable trade off, since tests that are highly specific but relatively insensitive will inevitably miss individuals with mild disease. In the interpretation of published series, caution is required, since diagnostic criteria that provide discrimination between groups under study are inherently reliant on the assays on which they are based. Therefore, the responses for a given test require validation in the locally used assay before they may be reliably interpreted in a given patient. Supraregional and nationwide interassay quality control assurance provides a means of achieving this and is widely practiced.

B. Urinary free cortisol (UFC)
Collection of urine for estimation of cortisol and cortisol metabolites is a noninvasive procedure and is widely used as a screening test for the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Under normal conditions, approximately 10% of serum cortisol is unbound and physiologically active. Free unbound cortisol passes through the kidneys, and although the majority is reabsorbed in the tubules, the remainder is excreted unaltered (4). Excess cortisol saturates circulating cortisol-binding globulin, resulting in an increase in the urine cortisol-UFC. UFC measurements have superseded the measurement of urinary 17-hydroxycorticosteroids (17-OHCS) or 17-oxogenic steroids, which are metabolites of cortisol and cortisone. In his review of 14 separate studies assessing the utility of 17-OHCS measurement for the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome, Crapo (51) reported that the false negative rate was 11% of 315 individuals with Cushing’s syndrome, while in 173 obese controls the false positive rate was 27%. Similarly poor results were obtained utilizing 17-ketogenic steroids (KGS) with a false negative rate in 24% of 235 patients with Cushing’s syndrome (51). In contrast, 24-h UFC measurements by RIA should reflect the integrated cortisol secretion, with a raised level being consistent with Cushing’s syndrome. The upper normal range in most assays is between 220–330 nmol/24 h (80–120 µg/24 h). The majority of problems associated with this test relate to the adequacy of collection, although in some assays there may be cross-reactivity with exogenous glucocorticoids. Adequate written instructions will improve collections (52), but there was a false negative rate of 5.6% and false positive rate of 3.3% in the combined data on 479 obese, lean, and chronically ill individuals (51). Expressing the UFC over creatinine allows the adequacy of collection to be established and improves the specificity (53), although it should be noted that creatinine may vary with changes in lean body mass. More recently, UFC measurement was shown to have a diagnostic sensitivity and specificity of 100% and 98%, respectively, in the differentiation of 48 patients with Cushing’s syndrome from 98 normal subjects and 95 obese individuals (54). However, although 24-h UFC measurement in 146 patients with Cushing’s syndrome was shown to have a sensitivity of 95%, it was noted that 11% had at least one of four 24-h collections with values within the normal range (55). Furthermore, ‘raised’ 24-h UFC levels have been documented in 40% of 60 depressed inpatients (56) and in 50% of 45 women with the polycystic ovarian syndrome (57); by definition, almost complete overlap in levels is seen in the differentiation from various causes of pseudo-Cushing’s states (58), emphasizing the potential for diagnostic confusion. The problem of cross-reactivity becomes a particular issue if the possibility of exogenous glucocorticoid administration exists (57). HPLC has recently been compared with RIA for the measurement of cortisol and cortisone in the assessment of endogenous Cushing’s syndrome and Cushing’s syndrome due to exogenous glucocorticoid ingestion (59). Using this method on single urine samples, 19 of 29 patients with histologically proven ACTH-dependent or ACTH-independent Cushing’s syndrome had an increase in both cortisone and cortisol, while a further 8 of 29 had an increase in one or the other. Overall, 27 of 29 (93%) had HPLC measurements comparable to a competitive binding assay, with levels of cortisol, cortisone, or both that were higher than the normal range; in 6 patients with Cushing’s syndrome due to exogenous glucocorticoids, the UFC and cortisone were suppressed, and prednisolone and prednisone were detected. Utilization of the competitive binding assay in this latter group resulted in every individual having a falsely elevated ‘UFC’ measurement. Since RIAs also suffer from problems of cross-reactivity, this approach may occasionally be useful in difficult cases where doubt exists as to the origin of glucocorticoid. Thus, if replicated in further studies, this approach may prove to be of value, as in this small number the sensitivity approaches that for four 24-h collections measured by RIA, but data on the values seen in pseudo-Cushing’s states are needed for full evaluation. Nevertheless, similar discrimination might be made by a single 0900 h plasma cortisol, since this should be suppressed in conditions in which exogenous glucocorticoids have resulted in Cushing’s syndrome, as long as the plasma cortisol RIA has little cross-reactivity for synthetic glucocorticoids and hydrocortisone is not being administered. Finally, a low dihydroepiandrosterone sulfate, because of suppressed plasma ACTH, may commonly be found in, and is a useful additional indicator of, exogenous glucocorticoid administration (57).

Overall, UFC estimations have a high sensitivity, but relatively low specificity; therefore, if several UFC collections are normal, Cushing’s syndrome is highly unlikely.

C. Low-dose dexamethasone testing
Since the original description by Liddle in 1960 (60) of the 48-h 2 mg/day low-dose dexamethasone suppression test (LDDST), this diagnostic tool has remained an important part of the evaluation of suspected Cushing’s syndrome. Administration of dexamethasone, which is not measured in most cortisol RIAs, results in suppression of the HPA axis in normal individuals and a fall in plasma and urinary cortisol. A variety of regimens exist for the dexamethasone administration, and a range of diagnostic ‘cut-offs’ that classify responses have been reported.

The overnight test involves the oral administration of 0.5–2.0 mg dexamethasone (most commonly 1 mg) at 2300 or 2400 h, after which a plasma cortisol sample is obtained at 0800 h or 0900 h the next morning (61). There appears to be no better discrimination with 1.5 mg or 2 mg of dexamethasone than with 1 mg administration (51). Because of its ease of administration as an outpatient, it has been widely advocated as a screening test. The reported cut-off values for suppression of serum cortisol in studies utilizing modern RIAs, but with relatively small numbers of individuals with Cushing’s syndrome, range from 100–200 nmol/liter (3.6–7.2 µg/dl) (62, 63). Some patients with Cushing’s syndrome, however, demonstrate unusual suppressibility to dexamethasone (64), and thus cut-offs at this level are likely to result in a significant number of false negative responses. Therefore, to enhance sensitivity, a recent extensive review assessing the utility of low-dose dexamethasone testing in the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome suggested that suppression of the postdexamethasone plasma cortisol to 50 nmol/liter (1.8 µg/dl) or less effectively excludes Cushing’s syndrome (65). At this level false positive rates will be higher, but the main value of the overnight test is that of ease of outpatient screening to exclude Cushing’s syndrome, which may be an acceptable price to pay for enhanced sensitivity.

The original description of the 48-h 2 mg/day dexamethasone suppression test (60) reported the suppression of urinary 17-OHCS as an indicator of cortisol suppression. Serum cortisol RIAs provide a more simple measurement, with test sensitivities of 97–100% (58, 66, 67), comparable to the overnight test (51). In our own experience, testing in 150 individuals with proven Cushing’s syndrome and measuring the 0900 h serum cortisol before and after the administration of 0.5 mg dexamethasone strictly every 6 h for 48 h and a cut-off value for suppression of 50 nmol/liter (1.8 µg/dl), resulted in a sensitivity of 98% (three patients with histologically proven Cushing’s disease suppressed to less than 50 nmol/liter) (68). In a direct comparison of the responses of 39 patients with Cushing’s syndrome compared with 19 with pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome, a plasma cortisol concentration at 0800 of 38 nmol/liter (1.4 µg/dl), exactly 2 h after the last dose of dexamethasone that had been administered for 48 h as above, gave a specificity of 100% and a sensitivity of 90% for the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome, while measurement of urinary steroids provided a sensitivity of only 50–60% (58). Increased sensitivity was achieved by analyzing the plasma cortisol after the administration of CRH (see Section X). More recently, and using the same criterion, these same authors have demonstrated the utility of this combined test in differentiating mild Cushing’s disease (three demonstrated suppression of plasma cortisol on the LDDST limb of the test) from normal individuals (69). The 1-mg overnight test has a specificity of 87.5% (63), while the reported specificity for the 2 mg/day 48-h test is 97–100% (67). Thus, the standard Liddle 2 mg/day 48-h LDDST has the same sensitivity and higher specificity than overnight dexamethasone testing, but should be performed by measuring plasma cortisol rather than urinary steroids. It is our routine practice to use the Liddle 48-h, 2 mg/day dexamethasone suppression test in both inpatient and outpatient settings, since, with adequate written instructions, compliance is extremely high and the results are reproducible.

In all the variations of the oral dexamethasone tests, variable absorption and metabolism of dexamethasone will influence the result of the test (70, 71). Thus, in an effort to reduce false positive responses, simultaneous measurement of plasma cortisol and dexamethasone has been advocated for the overnight test to ensure adequate plasma dexamethasone concentrations of 5.6 nmol/liter (0.22 µg/dl) or greater and to confirm compliance (70). This does, however, require access to a costly dexamethasone assay, which is often unnecessary, although it may be particularly useful in cases of suspected malabsorption. To overcome this type of problem, the intravenous dexamethasone suppression test has been proposed (29). In this study, an infusion of dexamethasone at 1 mg/h between 1100 h and 1500 h caused a sustained suppression day of plasma cortisol to less than 83 nmol/liter (3 µg/dl) until at least 0900 h the next day in normal and obese subjects, while in patients with Cushing’s syndrome the plasma cortisol was greater than 276 nmol/liter (10 µg/dl) at this 0900 h time point. Interestingly, distinction between Cushing’s disease and either the ectopic ACTH syndrome or ACTH-independent Cushing’s syndrome could be made on the basis of a 50% fall in plasma cortisol during the dexamethasone infusion. An alternative regimen involved intravenous administration of dexamethasone at a dose of 5 µg/kg/h for 5 h between 1000 h and 1500 h, which resulted in suppression of plasma cortisol to less than 38 nmol/liter (1.4 µg/liter) at 1900 h in 19 patients with simple obesity, while in 12 patients with Cushing’s syndrome the plasma cortisol was 68 nmol/liter (2.5 µg/dl) or greater at this time point; at 0800 h the next day, the obese group had a sustained suppression of plasma cortisol, while those with Cushing’s syndrome had values of 136 nmol/liter (5 µg/dl) or more (72). Such tests are clearly more complex to perform, but in certain circumstances their application may be useful.

Drugs such as phenytoin, phenobarbitone, carbamezepine, and rifampicin will induce hepatic enzymatic clearance of dexamethasone, thereby reducing the plasma dexamethasone concentration (73, 74) and resulting in false positive responses to dexamethasone testing. Estrogens increase the cortisol-binding globulin concentration in the circulation; since RIAs measure total cortisol, false positive rates are seen in 50% of women on the oral contraceptive pill (75). It is our routine practice, where possible, and particularly in mild cases, to stop such estrogen-containing drugs and delay investigation for 6 weeks to allow the cortisol-binding globulin to return to baseline. However, this may not be necessary in the case of transdermal estrogens.

D. Circadian rhythm assessment
In normal circumstances the level of serum cortisol begins to rise at 0300–0400 h and reaches a peak at 0700–0900 h, with levels then falling for the remainder of the day. Loss of the normal circadian rhythm in patients with Cushing’s syndrome was first reported by Doe et al. in 1960 (76) and has been confirmed in several studies (77, 78, 79, 80). In contrast, other reports have suggested that the rhythm may persist in certain patients but with levels that are set abnormally high (81, 82, 83). There is a large overlap in 0900 h serum cortisol values between patients with Cushing’s syndrome and normal subjects (36, 84, 85); therefore, this sampling time affords poor discrimination. The overlap between patients with Cushing’s syndrome and the normal range diminishes with clock time such that at time points in the range 1600–2100 h, 17% of patients with Cushing’s syndrome have values within the normal range, falling to 3.4% at 2300 h (51). Urine cortisol samples have also been used for this purpose. Clearance of urine cortisol collected between 2200 h and 2300 h, and expressed as a ratio of nanograms/mg creatinine, ranged from 76 to 905 in 14 patients with Cushing’s syndrome but only from 6 to 43 in 20 normal subjects, affording discrimination between groups (53). Similarly, a timed urine collection between 2000 h and 2400 h revealed a ratio (expressed as micromoles/mol creatinine) ranging from 27.5 to 855 in 20 patients with Cushing’s syndrome, 1.1 to 9.4 in nonobese control subjects, and 9.4 to 27.8 in 34 obese subjects, thus giving an overlap with the Cushing’s syndrome group in one individual with extreme obesity (86). In our own series a single sleeping plasma cortisol was greater than 50 nmol/liter (1.8 µg/dl) in 150 individuals with Cushing’s syndrome (three of which had suppressed on a 2 mg/day 48-h LDDST), while in control subjects the sleeping midnight serum cortisol was less than 50 nmol/liter (1.8 µg/dl) in all (68) (Fig. 1). The test does, however, require inpatient admission for a period of 48 h or more to avoid false positive responses due to the stress of hospitalization, and the blood sample needs to be drawn within 5–10 min of waking the patient. To avoid false positive results due to anticipation, the patients should not be warned that the test is to be performed; if the patient is awake, the test is not readily interpretable. It is apparent from Fig. 1 that the test affords no discriminatory power between any of the causes of Cushing’s syndrome. Moreover, this reported sensitivity is reliant, as stated above, on an active state of cortisol hypersecretion.

View larger version (19K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 1. Sleeping plasma midnight cortisol values in 150 patients with Cushing’s syndrome and 20 normal volunteers. [Reproduced with permission from J. Newell-Price et al.: Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 43:545–550, 1995 (68 ).]

E. Cyclical Cushing’s syndrome
As stated above, for unknown reasons some ACTH-secreting tumors of any type causing Cushing’s syndrome exhibit cyclical and intermittent secretion (47, 48), and this may be reflected by a history of variable and intermittent depression with anxiety (92), an alteration in the level of prevailing glycemia, or indeed any of the plethora of symptomatology and signs outlined in Table 3. This may cause considerable diagnostic confusion, but careful documentation of the history is of paramount importance. Inpatient admission, sometimes on repeated occasions, with sampling for sleeping midnight plasma cortisol is one means of getting around this diagnostic conundrum, and proceeding to further investigation if documented hypercortisolemia is present. If inpatient admission cannot be justified, salivary cortisol estimations may be used to establish the diagnosis as an outpatient (93). Multiple and repeated 24-h UFC collections may also prove useful. Clearly, the diagnostic dimension of time is often needed to establish the diagnosis.

	VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH-Independent Cushing’s Syndrome

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 
Only once the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome is established may the differential diagnosis be entertained. The initial step is to establish whether ACTH is detectable in the plasma; if it is consistently undetectable, the diagnosis of ACTH-independent Cushing’s syndrome may be made, and focus should turn to adrenal imaging. Usually this is a fairly easy discrimination to make: at our institution a plasma ACTH level of less than 10 pg/ml was seen in all patients with Cushing’s syndrome due to a cortisol-secreting adrenal adenoma. It is, however, our experience that a few patients with pituitary-dependent Cushing’s disease have the occasional undetectable plasma ACTH, as assessed by a conventional RIA with a lower limit of detection of 10 pg/ml (94). Thus, if measured by this means, we would recommend the collection of several plasma ACTH collections to avoid this potential problem, or the measurement of ACTH after CRH stimulation. Nevertheless, we have not seen any patient with ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome that has had more than one or two ACTH levels of less than 10 pg/ml. Immunoradiometric assays (IRMA) provide increased speed of assay, high reproducibility, and sensitivity for ACTH measurement. Using IRMA, ACTH levels consistently below 5 pg/ml are found in patients with cortisol-producing adrenal adenomas, autonomous bilateral adrenal hyperplasia, and Cushing’s syndrome due to the administration of exogenous glucocorticoids (95). The use of such sensitive assays will provide very good discrimination, and when the levels are this low the diagnosis is clearly ACTH-independent; in contrast, when plasma ACTH is unequivocally measurable, ACTH dependence exists. As such, they provide optimal screening at the critical decision limb as to whether the clinician is dealing with ACTH-dependent or ACTH-independent disease. A gray area does, however, exist and low-detectable ACTH levels need cautious interpretation and repeated measurement. IRMA measurements are more specific than RIA measurements, but it is this specificity that may, in theory, result in ‘normal levels’ being recorded in patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome, since in this situation ACTH precursors may be present in large quantities, and these are not detected by ACTH IRMA (4, 96).

The high-dose dexamethasone suppression test (HDDST) was originally introduced to distinguish adrenal causes of Cushing’s syndrome from Cushing’s disease, and in the original report allowed an accurate discrimination in all those tested (60). The advent of reliable ACTH assays has facilitated the discrimination between adrenal causes and pituitary or ectopic ACTH secretion, although the HDDST remains useful in demonstrating functional autonomy (independent secretion of cortisol) of an adrenal adenoma or carcinoma disclosed on abdominal scanning. Some centers advocate the use of CRH testing (see below) to confirm a lack of ACTH response in this situation.

	VII. Differential Diagnosis of ACTH-Dependent Cushing’s Syndrome

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 
A. Overview
In contrast to differentiating between ACTH-dependent and ACTH-independent etiologies, the differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome is far more taxing. Both corticotroph adenomas and tumors causing the ectopic ACTH syndrome are frequently small and thus difficult to visualize, and strenuous efforts at localization are required to allow correct management: these, in turn, rely heavily on biochemical testing to direct the imaging to the appropriate site. There is, however, no such thing as the single, simple, perfect, noninvasive test that will, in every case, allow the differentiation between Cushing’s disease and the ectopic ACTH syndrome. Indeed, the existence of such a test would presuppose an invariant difference in the biology of these etiological entities that would allow a completely reliable classification based on the responses seen during biochemical testing, and this does not seem to be the case (97). The highest degree of accuracy is most likely to be obtained, therefore, by using a variety of tests that assess the spectrum of different physiological responses to a variety of agents.

In most centers, during the investigation of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome the a priori probability that a patient has pituitary disease is usually between 85% and 90%. Therefore, statistically, the endocrinologist has a far better than even chance of getting the correct diagnosis with almost no investigation whatsoever, once the presence of detectable plasma ACTH has been established. It is widely held that pituitary surgery is the optimal management of Cushing’s disease (98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110). One extreme approach might consist of proceeding directly to pituitary surgery after the sustained detection of plasma ACTH. Because of the inherent risks of the operation and the potential for hypopituitarism, especially in individuals of child-bearing age, this ultimate reductionist approach is unacceptable. Furthermore, such an approach would not improve the condition of a patient with ectopic ACTH secretion; indeed, delay in the correct localization and appropriate management of these tumors may result in metastatic disease (111). Biochemical testing is used in an attempt to improve upon the pretest likelihood and to direct the physician to the appropriate imaging and sampling modalities before formal management. Assuming that the default mode of treatment is pituitary surgery, the peripheral noninvasive tests in the literature are reported such that specificity is optimized (this inevitably being at the cost of reduced sensitivity) so that patients do not undergo inappropriate pituitary surgery. A major problem with all analyses, however, is the ascertainment of diagnosis. Is the ‘gold standard’ for pituitary disease a positive ‘central’ ACTH gradient on bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling (BIPSS), the neurosurgeon who ‘sees’ the tumor, the patient cured after a microadenomectomy but with negative histology, or the tumor immunostaining with anti-ACTH antibody? Depending on classification, the sensitivity and specificities for any test can be radically altered: no consensus currently exists, and it appears unlikely that one will emerge. This is further compounded by selection bias, intention to test/treat variables, and ‘excluded cases.’ We are left with recommendations ranging from ‘do all the tests in all the patients’ to suggestions not far from the one outlined above. Bearing these caveats in mind, we will review the tests currently employed in the differentiation of the causes of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. We must again emphasize that these tests are only interpretable in the context of sustained and current hypercortisolemia.

B. Basal testing
1. Plasma ACTH. Although the levels of plasma ACTH tend to be higher in the ectopic ACTH syndrome than in Cushing’s disease, there is a large overlap between values, as assessed by RIA and IRMA (4, 85, 96), and therefore this affords poor discrimination between groups. The presence of POMC precursors, due to partial processing of this peptide and incomplete cleavage to ACTH, ‘big ACTH’ (112), is documented by a specific two-site IRMA in the ectopic ACTH syndrome, particularly when caused by small-cell lung carcinoma (113). Such ‘overt’ ectopic ACTH secretion is usually clinically obvious, unlike the ‘occult’ secretion due to carcinoid tumors, most often bronchial in origin. Recently, POMC precusors have also been documented in 12 patients with histologically proven ACTH-secreting carcinoid tumors, albeit at lower levels than seen in small-cell lung cancer, but higher than in any of the 27 patients with Cushing’s disease caused by a pituitary microadenoma (114). In contrast, pituitary corticotroph macroadenomas may also exhibit poor processing of POMC (115, 116) causing diagnostic confusion. Furthermore, overlap has been documented in the levels of POMC present in 20 patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome and 42 patients with pituitary-dependent Cushing’s disease, with the values reflecting the aggressive nature of the tumors regardless of origin (117). Therefore, such analysis may prove to be helpful in discriminating Cushing’s disease from causes of ‘occult’ ectopic ACTH secretion, but the assays are not widely available and the data are currently conflicting.

2. Serum potassium. Serum potassium is usually low in the ectopic ACTH syndrome; therefore, this may be an extremely helpful discriminator, although up to 10% of patients with Cushing’s disease exhibit hypokalemia (4, 85). The apparent reason for the hypokalemia is the saturation of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase by excessive cortisol, which under normal physiological circumstances protects the mineralocorticoid receptor from the effects of cortisol (118). However, this generally reflects the prevailing levels of cortisol rather than the specific etiology. Thus, hypokalemia has high sensitivity for the ectopic ACTH syndrome, but a specificity that only approaches the pretest likelihood. In our experience we have seen only one patient with the ectopic ACTH syndrome (with a bronchial carcinoid) who did not have hypokalemia and associated alkalosis.

3. Ectopic cosecretion. In up to 70% of cases, occult ectopic tumors may express and cosecrete one or more additional peptides such as calcitonin, somatostatin, gastrin, pancreatic polypeptide, vasoactive intestinal peptide, glucagon, hCG-ß, -fetoprotein, -subunit, neuron-specific enolase, GHRH, CRH, and carcinoembryonic antigen (119, 120). Thus, measurement of these specific peptides may sometimes be useful. The presence of an additional peptide provides stronger evidence for the ectopic ACTH syndrome, may also serve as a tumor marker during follow-up, and may occasionally be useful during venous sampling for localization (120).

C. Dynamic noninvasive testing
1. High dose dexamethasone testing. For more than 30 yr HDDST has remained one of the main biochemical tools used in the differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. The basis of the test relies on the fact that, in most situations, the corticotroph tumor cells in Cushing’s disease retain some responsiveness to the negative feedback effects of glucocorticoids while tumors ectopically secreting ACTH do not. The standard test was performed on 24-h collections of urine for the measurement of 17-OHCS or UFC, calculating the degree of suppression from day 1 to day 3 after the administration of oral dexamethasone at a dose of 2 mg every 6 h for 48 h. As with the LDDST, several suppression cut-offs that optimally define pituitary disease, in addition to combinations of measurements of different steroids, have been reported. Originally, suppression of urinary 17-OHCS by 50% or greater was reported as being consistent with Cushing’s disease (60). Although this criterion has no intrinsic legitimacy, subsequent studies have confirmed the utility of this cut-off using more easily obtained plasma cortisol estimations, and calculating the suppression of values at 0800 h or 0900 h before and after 48 h of dexamethasone administration (85, 121, 122, 123). Recently, data from the National Institutes of Health indicate that measurement of UFC as an end point is as accurate a test as when 17-OHCS measurement is used, and that suppression of UFC by 90% or 17-OHCS by 64% in a given patient results in 100% specificity and 83% sensitivity for the diagnosis of pituitary disease (124). This series included 118 patients with surgically proven Cushing’s syndrome: 94 patients with Cushing’s disease, 14 with primary adrenal disease, and 10 with ectopic ACTH secretion. However, 2 yr later a further report from this center indicated that an increase in the level of suppression of 17-OHCS to 69% was required to maintain a specificity of 100%, albeit with a reduced sensitivity of 79%, and highlighted the utility of plasma cortisol measurement (123). Such results reflect the problems encountered in attempting to develop increasingly sophisticated cut-off criteria that maximize specificity to define disease etiology, since only one outlying responder is required to drastically alter the specificity of a given test; this inevitably results in a fall in sensitivity.

The 48-h HDDST is somewhat cumbersome; as an alternative, the 8-mg overnight dexamethasone suppression test has been developed, which involves the administration of a single 8-mg dose of dexamethasone orally at 2300 h with measurement of plasma cortisol at 0800 h before and after administration (125, 126). This test has a sensitivity ranging from 57% to 92% and a specificity ranging from 57% to 100% (123, 125, 126, 127). The time points and cut-offs that result in these reported figures vary. After the original description of the 8-mg high-dose overnight test, a 50% suppression of plasma cortisol at the second 0800 h sampling point resulted in 100% specificity and 92% sensitivity (125). More recently, a report from the NIH, including seven individuals with bronchial carcinoid tumors causing the ectopic ACTH syndrome, demonstrated 88% sensitivity and 57% specificity using these points and cut-off criteria (123). In the same study, 100% specificity and 71% sensitivity was achieved by a pre-dexamethasone sampling time of 0830 h and post-dexamethasone sampling time of 0900 h and increasing the suppression criterion to more than 68%. These minor time changes appear to have significant effects on the reported results, and further larger scale data are needed for confirmation of these revised criteria. Even so, it is apparent that they still do not appear to be as discriminatory as standard 48-h high-dose dexamethasone testing. This lowering of test sensitivity is an inevitable result of increasing experience and numbers, in addition to the increasing identification of small carcinoid tumors that may have previously gone undiagnosed.

Part of the failure of suppression during high-dose dexamethasone testing in patients with Cushing’s disease may relate to inadequate levels of plasma dexamethasone due to inadequate absorption, increased clearance, or poor compliance (128). To circumvent these problems, the use of a 5-h intravenous infusion of dexamethasone at a rate of 1 mg/h has been advocated, with suppression of plasma cortisol by 50% or more being consistent with Cushing’s disease (129). A slight modification of this test, with an infusion of dexamethasone for 7 h, demonstrated a fall in plasma cortisol of 190 nmol/liter or more in all of 90 patients with Cushing’s disease, but only in 2 of 7 with the ectopic ACTH syndrome, giving a sensitivity of 100% and a specificity of 90% (130). Both false positive responders were ectopic secretors of CRH, and since this is a rare cause of Cushing’s syndrome, more data on the responses seen in the ectopic ACTH syndrome are needed. Overall, the sensitivity of the HDDST ranges from 65% to 100%, and the specificity ranges from 60% to 100% (51, 85, 122, 123, 124, 131). Combining the results of the 48-h and overnight HDDST tests performed in every individual, and using the revised criteria for the 8-mg overnight test and conventional HDDST, resulted in a sensitivity of 92% and specificity of 100% (123). Needless to say, this raises the philosophical question of when further refinements should be abandoned, since the published criteria are becoming ever more complex and the benefit of test simplicity begins to be lost. It is hardly surprising that repeat testing, or combining the results of overnight and 48-h HDDST (123), improves results, but a logical extension of this argument is that multiple HDDST should get the correct answer if repeated a sufficient number of times. Clearly, active management of patients precludes this, and, as such, adopting the simplest approach (48-h standard HDDST using plasma cortisol samples) and combining the results with tests that act in a physiologically distinct manner would appear to be a more rational approach.

A more reductionist suggestion by Findling et al. (132) has been to call for the abandonment of the HDDST altogether, as it has been shown to provide little diagnostic advantage over clinical assessment in the differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. The most recent study from these authors examined the effectiveness of the HDDST in clinical practice, whether conventional or overnight, and used simultaneous BIPSS as the gold standard for diagnosis of the origin of ACTH secretion (133). Rather than reporting extensive single-center experience, this thought-provoking work illustrated the results of dexamethasone suppression tests performed by physicians referring patients to the authors for BIPSS, and the rigor with which these tests had been performed was deliberately ignored in the study design. In their consecutive series of 112 patients referred for BIPSS, and using the standard response criterion of suppression of the postdexamethasone cortisol by greater than 50% as being consistent with Cushing’s disease, the HDDST had a sensitivity of 81% and a specificity of 67% and as such is less accurate than the pretest likelihood of Cushing’s disease. At no response level was it possible to achieve 100% specificity. Their analysis is uniquely based on the HDDST in practice and is, in effect, a meta-analysis, but clearly such data would be radically altered if some of the testing was being performed suboptimally for any number of the reasons that they highlight. Furthermore, the classification into pituitary or ectopic secretion of ACTH is based on the results of BIPSS as the ‘gold standard,’ rather than surgical confirmation, although this in itself is not a perfect test (see below). The HDDST has been shown to have better performance elsewhere, particularly when the standard 48-h HDDST is used (85, 121, 122, 123), and one conclusion might be that it should only be performed in centers with large experience. It is probably too early to call for the abandonment of the HDDST, but it certainly highlights the importance of the complete rigor required in all endocrinological assessment.

2. Metyrapone testing. Liddle and co-workers (134) introduced the ‘long metyrapone test’ to differentiate primary adrenal causes of Cushing’s syndrome from other causes (134). This test is based upon the fact that metyrapone inhibits the synthesis of cortisol by inhibiting the cleavage of cholesterol to form pregnenolone (135) and, through the inhibition of 11ß-hydroxylase, preventing the hydroxylation of 11-deoxycortisol to form cortisol (135). In patients with primary adrenal pathology, administration of metyrapone should not result in a rise in 17-OHCS excretion; in Cushing’s disease, as a result of lowering of plasma cortisol and hence decreased negative feedback at both hypothalamic and pituitary levels, this should result in a compensatory increase in plasma ACTH. This will overcome the early step of metyrapone inhibition, producing a rise in urinary 17-OHCS secretion and an increase in plasma 11-deoxycortisol (135). Test protocols involve the collection of 24-h urine specimens for the estimation of 17-OHCS or 11-deoxycortisol excretion and/or the determination of plasma 11-deoxycortisol. Metyrapone at a dose of 750 mg is administered orally at 4-h intervals beginning at 0800 h for six doses, and urine and blood samples are collected on the day before, the day of, and the day after metyrapone administration. Crapo (51) has analyzed the data from 15 separate studies and shown that 101 of 110 (98%) patients with Cushing’s disease demonstrated an increase in urinary 17-OHCS or 17-KGS, while only 8 of 49 patients with adrenal tumors showed such an increase. It should be noted, however, that 6 of 13 patients with ectopic ACTH secretion also had a rise in their urinary 17-OHCS or 17-KGS levels, affording very poor differentiation between ACTH-dependent groups. As is the case for the HDDST, the main use of the metyrapone test in more recent years has been in the differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome (136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142). The largest and most recent study again comes from the NIH (143). In this series, using surgical cure as the gold standard for pituitary disease, a rise in urinary 17-OHCS of more than 70% or a rise in plasma 11-deoxycortisol of more than 400-fold from baseline was seen in 71% of 170 patients with Cushing’s disease, but not in any of the 15 patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome; these data indicate a test sensitivity of 71% and specificity of 100% for the diagnosis of Cushing’s disease, although one patient who was ultimately classified as having a unilateral hyperfunctioning adrenal nodule exhibited a rise in plasma 11-deoxycortisol of 730-fold (a rise, but probably not of this magnitude, would be predicted from enzymatic blockade). These authors were able to achieve a greater sensitivity, while maintaining 100% specificity, by combining the results of high-dose dexamethasone suppression with the results of the metyrapone test; a rise in urinary 17-OHCS of more than 70% or a rise in plasma 11-deoxycortisol of more than 400-fold on metyrapone testing, or on high-dose dexamethasone testing a suppression of urinary 17-OHCS by 69% or UFC by 90%, was seen in 88% of 170 patients with Cushing’s disease but not in any of the patients with ectopic ACTH secretion (the independent results of the HDDST of this study have been discussed above). Such a result is comparable to the far more easily administered and interpreted CRH test (see below). This combined HDDST/metyrapone test is far more cumbersome than CRH testing and appears to be less accurate than combining the results of HDDST and CRH (4, 122, 144). Metyrapone and dexamethasone are, however, inexpensive and widely available; therefore, if CRH cannot be obtained, testing with metyrapone in this fashion may be a reasonable, although inferior, option.

To simplify testing with metyrapone, a shorter test was also developed to distinguish Cushing’s disease from primary adrenal pathology (145, 146, 147, 148). More recently, its use has been compared with the standard long metyrapone test in its ability to distinguish between 57 patients with Cushing’s disease and 6 patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome (149). Administration of metyrapone at a dose of approximately 30 mg/kg at 2400 h and analysis of 0900 h plasma values before and after metyrapone administration showed that suppression in plasma cortisol of more than 40%, or an increase of plasma 11 deoxycortisol by more than 220-fold, was seen in 37 of 57 patients with Cushing’s disease (sensitivity, 65%), but not in any of the patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome (specificity, 100%). The sensitivity, at a specificity of 100%, was improved to 84% by combining the results of the long and short test, but to achieve this the authors had to revise their previously documented criteria for the long metyrapone test (143). By itself, the short metyrapone test has very poor sensitivity and should be abandoned.

3. Testing with CRH. CRH was identified by Vale and co-workers in 1981 (150), and since this time it has been extensively used in the differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. It had been hoped that this test would allow complete discrimination between pituitary and ectopic ACTH secretion; in the majority of patients with Cushing’s disease the intravenous administration of CRH causes an excessive rise in plasma ACTH and cortisol, while in patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome, such an effect is seen only rarely (24, 30, 94, 151, 152, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161). It seems likely that this disparity in response relates to the relatively greater expression of the CRH receptor in corticotroph adenomas compared with tumors ectopically secreting ACTH. It is important to note that the majority of reports documenting the use of this peptide in this context have used the ovine (oCRH) rather than the human-sequence peptide (hCRH).

Testing with CRH has been performed in the morning (122) and evening (158), and the most recent reports highlight the clinical utility of morning testing (156, 161). Since the circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion is lost in Cushing’s syndrome, it is unnecessary to go to the added inconvenience of testing at 2000 h (127). The test is performed with the patient in a rested, fasted, and recumbent state. Most test protocols take samples for plasma ACTH and cortisol at basal samples between -15 and 0 min, and stimulated samples at 15, 30, 45, 60, 90, and 120 min after the intravenous administration of CRH, 1 µg/kg body weight, or a total dose of 100 µg. The test is well tolerated, with side effects consisting of mild short-lived mild facial flushing and a metallic taste in the mouth.

As a group, the responses to these peptides seen in patients with Cushing’s disease and the ectopic ACTH syndrome differ in a quantitative rather than a qualitative fashion, and thus the absolute responses are of less value than percentage changes from basal values. In their meta-analysis of 10 studies reporting the use of peripheral CRH testing in 129 patients with Cushing’s disease, 21 with the ectopic ACTH syndrome and 29 with primary adrenal disease, Kaye and Crapo (127) suggested diagnostic criteria consistent with Cushing’s disease as being a rise from basal in peak plasma cortisol of 20%, or a rise in peak plasma ACTH of 50% after the administration of CRH. When these criteria are used for the plasma ACTH responses, the test has a sensitivity of 86% and a specificity of 95%, while plasma cortisol responses give an improved sensitivity of 91% and a similar specificity of 95%. Plasma cortisol samples are far more easily handled and analyzed and thus have advantages over and above the improved sensitivity compared with ACTH sampling. In contrast, in the largest reported series from the NIH, the responses to oCRH, administered at 0800 h, that best discriminated between pituitary and nonpituitary origins of ACTH secretion was a rise of 35% or more in the mean plasma ACTH concentrations at 15 and 30 min above the mean basal value at -5 and -1 min; this was seen in 93 of 100 patients with Cushing’s disease, while a response less than this was observed in all 16 patients studied with the ectopic ACTH syndrome (13 of which had carcinoid tumors) giving a sensitivity of 93% and a specificity of 100% (156). Nevertheless, analysis of the responses utilizing the other basal time points employed (-15 and 0 min, or combinations thereof) revealed that some of the patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome would have been misclassified. The plasma cortisol responses were less impressive, with a rise of 20% or more at the mean of the levels at 30 and 45 min giving a sensitivity of 91% and a specificity of 88%: no combinations of time points allowed the achievement of 100% specificity without sensitivity being severely compromised. The earlier time points used for ACTH reflect the time course in the response to CRH that tends to peak at 15–30 min. The authors themselves recommend more cautious cut-offs to guarantee specificity and also suggest the use of cortisol responses, unless the Hazelton RIA for ACTH, as used in their study, is employed. The number of patients studied in this latter single study (156) is comparable in size to the total number analyzed by Kaye and Crapo (127), and yet differing response criteria are recommended. This may be explained, in part, by differences in study protocols, since the meta-analysis included studies utilizing evening testing, and in part by different assays employed. The sensitivity of the response criteria set out by Nieman and co-workers (158) has also been validated by others (151).

The human sequence peptide has similar effects to the oCRH in normal individuals and patients with Cushing’s disease (162, 163, 164, 165). Although some reports indicate that testing with hCRH is less accurate than when using oCRH (152), we have found that the responses are qualitatively similar, albeit with a quantitatively lower response to hCRH, in patients with Cushing’s disease, Cushing’s syndrome due to adrenal adenoma, and in obese and lean volunteers (155). Published large series are needed that report the responses to hCRH that best discriminate between patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome and Cushing’s disease.

Combined analysis of all published series reveals that between 7% and 14% of all patients with Cushing’s disease fail to respond to CRH if the best discriminating criteria are applied. This is somewhat disappointing compared with the initial hopes for the clinical utility of CRH as a discriminating agent. Although most of the Cushing’s disease nonresponders exhibit suppression on a HDDST (122, 131), there are rare cases in which an ACTH-secreting bronchial carcinoid tumor may suppress on a HDDST and exhibit responsiveness to CRH (166). Such cases are very uncommon, and the use of high-dose dexamethasone testing and CRH stimulation will, in the vast majority of cases, allow correct classification.

4. Testing with vasopressin. For many years it has been known that vasopressin also stimulates ACTH release and, in particular, that it potentiates the ACTH-releasing effects of CRH (167, 168). These actions are thought to occur via the specific corticotroph vasopressin receptor, the V₃ (also known as V_1b) receptor, which has recently been cloned (169, 170). The lysine or arginine vasopressin (AVP) test has been used in the differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome but has a false negative response in 27% of patients with Cushing’s disease (171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176, 177, 178). Increases in urinary cortisol excretion have been observed in patients with Cushing’s disease after the administration of 10 U of intraperitoneal AVP (176), while serum cortisol responses to this dose of lysine vasopressin (LVP) in patients with Cushing’s disease have been noted to be less than that after 100 µg of CRH (179). Tabarin and co-workers (180) have shown that 18/21 patients with Cushing’s disease responded to CRH while 17 showed similar responses to vasopressin. In this same study 2 of 7 patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome responded to LVP while none showed a response to CRH. Thus, CRH appears to discriminate better than LVP between ectopic ACTH secretion and Cushing’s disease. Furthermore, side effects consisting of abdominal pain, nausea, and flushing have precluded the routine clinical use of vasopressin for diagnostic testing, although it has been suggested that it may be better tolerated when used as a low-dose infusion, or as small bolus doses, in combination with CRH (181, 182). Overall, the LVP or AVP test appears to be inferior to CRH testing.

5. Testing with desmopressin. Desmopressin, a long-acting analog of vasopressin (183), has relative specificity for the renal V₂ receptor with little V₁-mediated pressor activity (184). While its specific V_1b receptor activity is uncertain, it has been shown previously to have no intrinsic in vivo ACTH-releasing characteristics when given as an infusion in man (185). Desmopressin has, however, been shown to cause a rise from baseline in peak plasma cortisol of more than 4 times the intraassay coefficient of variation (158) in 15 of 16 patients tested with Cushing’s disease when given as an intravenous bolus dose of 5–10 µg, but not in one patient with an ACTH-secreting pheochromocytoma; a complete data set for ACTH responses was not reported (186). Since this peptide appears to be free of the V₁ receptor-mediated pressor side effects, it has been suggested that it may be used to aid the differential diagnosis of the causes of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. More recently, we have shown that a response, defined as a 20% rise in serum cortisol (156), after the administration of 10 µg desmopressin iv was seen in 14 of 17 patients with Cushing’s disease and 1 of 5 patients with histologically proven ‘occult’ ACTH-secreting ectopic tumors (an ACTH-secreting medullary cell carcinoma of the thyroid) (187). Using ACTH response criteria of a 35% rise or more (156), 12 of 17 patients with Cushing’s disease and 3 patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome showed a response. These findings have been confirmed, using response criteria for CRH testing as defined by Kaye and Crapo (127), with responses being seen in 14 of 17 patients with Cushing’s disease, while only 1 patient with the ectopic ACTH syndrome was studied, and no response was seen to either desmopressin or CRH (188, 189). Combining the data of all published series (Table 4) reveals that for the desmopressin test the cortisol responses have a sensitivity of 84% and specificity of 83%, while ACTH responses provide poorer discrimination with a sensitivity of 77% and specificity of 73%. Therefore, testing with desmopressin is inferior to testing with CRH in terms of sensitivity and specificity, although this peptide is cheaper and more easily available worldwide. Although the total numbers are small, the results are in keeping with those for LVP and AVP testing (151, 180). A possible explanation for the relatively poorer specificity of the desmopressin test is the more common expression of the V_1b (or V₃) receptor in ACTH-secreting nonpituitary tumors (190, 191). As such, it seems likely that testing with desmopressin alone will result in poorer discrimination than testing with CRH, although more studies are needed to confirm this impression (192). Nevertheless, some patients with Cushing’s disease respond only to one peptide or the other (186, 187, 188, 192), and thus in certain circumstances testing with desmopressin may be useful.

7. Recent developments: testing with hexarelin. Administration of the synthetic peptide hexarelin, a member of the GH-releasing peptides (GHRPs) family, has recently been shown to have far greater ACTH- and cortisol-releasing effects than hCRH in 10 patients with Cushing’s disease (193). The responses seen were remarkable in terms of the absolute levels of stimulated plasma cortisol, and even more impressively plasma ACTH, both of which were far higher than those seen even when testing with oCRH or hCRH in patients with Cushing’s disease. In contrast, no ACTH rise was seen in two patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome, while the cortisol response in one overlapped those of the Cushing’s disease group. No ACTH or cortisol response was seen in 5 patients with cortisol-secreting adrenal adenomas. These results are very promising, and if replicated in larger studies, this may prove to be an extremely useful tool: even so, one cortisol responder in the ectopic ACTH group suggests that GHRP receptors may have also been present in these tumors, and indeed GHRP receptor expression in ACTH-secreting nonpituitary tumors has recently been demonstrated (194, 195). It seems likely, therefore, that with further experience more responders in the ectopic ACTH syndrome group will be reported.

D. Invasive testing
1. Inferior petrosal sinus sampling for ACTH. In the discrimination between pituitary and ectopic sources of ACTH, none of the noninvasive tests discussed above have been validated as providing 100% diagnostic accuracy in large series or meta-analyses. Therefore, alternative strategies have been developed. Although in many circumstances peripheral biochemical tests will provide evidence of pituitary disease, the presence of a pituitary lesion on imaging, especially if less than 4 mm in diameter, does not necessarily confirm functionality, since 10% of the general population harbor pituitary incidentalomas (196). Moreover, in at least 40–50% of cases of Cushing’s disease, no abnormality will be disclosed on pituitary imaging (96, 197, 198). Thus, venous sampling from the inferior petrosal sinuses and/or cavernous sinuses is now widely practiced 1) to confirm or refute a central (pituitary) source of ACTH, especially when pituitary imaging is negative, and 2) to attempt to lateralize the site of a pituitary tumor to guide neurosurgical approaches.

The technique was originally described by Corrigan and co-workers (199) and involves the placement of venous sampling catheters in the inferior petrosal sinuses that drain the pituitary venous effluent (200, 201). A significant gradient between the pituitary (central) and peripheral values of plasma ACTH, obtained by simultaneous sampling, is indicative of Cushing’s disease. Although in early reports the procedure was performed with sequential catheterization of each of the petrosal sinuses (199, 202, 203), it was soon realized that simultaneous bilateral inferior petrosal sampling was required as the drainage of the pituitary tends to have dominant and nondominant drainage to the inferior petrosal sinuses, and therefore unilateral sampling may miss a central source (204, 205, 206, 207). The basal ratio of the values of plasma ACTH obtained from central and peripheral samples that have been taken as indicative of Cushing’s disease have been reported as greater than 1.4 or 1.5 (206, 208, 209, 210), or greater than 2.0 (4, 39, 40, 132, 211, 212, 213, 214, 215, 216, 217, 218). Since patients with the ectopic ACTH syndrome have been documented to have maximal basal ratios of 1.7 or 2.0 (211, 219), it would seem prudent to take this more conservative ratio of 2.0 (4). Although a baseline ratio of more than 2.0 is consistent with Cushing’s disease, ACTH secretion is intermittent, and a significant minority of patients with Cushing’s disease have a ratio less than this on the basal samples. For this reason, after basal samples are obtained, a stimulating agent, most commonly CRH, is usually administered to increase the sensitivity of the test. Both hCRH and oCRH have been used for this purpose with great success; after administration of 100 µg CRH iv, peripheral and simultaneous bilateral inferior petrosal sinus plasma ACTH samples are obtained at 3, 5, 10, and 15 min (in varying reports). In most studies a peak stimulated central-to-peripheral ratio of 3.0 or more, which usually occurs between 3 to 5 min post-CRH, is indicative of Cushing’s disease (40, 132, 211, 215, 216, 217, 219, 220, 221). Recently, metyrapone pretreatment has been used with success to enhance the central-to-peripheral gradient (222), suggesting it may have a role when CRH is not available. Interestingly, the criterion that was validated in the largest published series from the NIH (211) required revision downward to maintain ‘100% sensitivity’ in their childhood series, since although 42 of 43 patients with Cushing’s disease had stimulated values of 3.0 or more, 1 patient with Cushing’s disease had a stimulated ratio of 2.5, while all 6 with the ectopic ACTH syndrome had basal and stimulated ratios less than or equal to 2.2 (39). If this revised criterion were applied to their larger previous series (211), it would result in false positives (ectopic secretors misdiagnosed as pituitary tumors), and thus a stimulated response of 3.0 or more seems more appropriate. Applying the criteria of a basal ratio of 2.0 or a CRH-stimulated ratio of 3.0 to published series that have compared the results seen in Cushing’s disease and the ectopic ACTH syndrome (Table 5) reveals an overall sensitivity of 96% and specificity of 100% (although false positive responses have been documented; vide infra). Certain points of this analysis are worth drawing out. First, the remarkable report from the NIH (211) reported a specificity and sensitivity of 100% for the CRH-stimulated procedure in the discrimination between 246 surgically confirmed patients with Cushing’s disease and 20 with the ectopic ACTH syndrome. However, the authors excluded 32 patients from their analysis, including 3 with pituitary macroadenomas, since they were unable to formally classify them. Clearly, inclusion of these would have influenced the results. Following classification of these patients according to the results of their HDDSTs and CRH tests, the result of inferior petrosal sinus sampling agreed in 24 and disagreed in 8, giving an overall diagnostic accuracy of 95%. A follow-up report of these 32 individuals, particularly the 8 with discordant results, would be extremely instructive. Second, CRH stimulation is an important part of the test that significantly contributes to its sensitivity. Third, the test is successfully performed with bilateral simultaneous sampling from the inferior petrosal sinuses in 96% of combined series (Table 5); it remains, however, an invasive technique requiring a high degree of skill and familiarity and is thus best performed in centers with suitable experience. False negative results occur in 4% (Table 5) (209, 210, 213, 214, 216, 217, 223, 224), while false positive results are extremely uncommon; they may result from cyclical secretion of ACTH, or theoretically from treatment with cortisol-lowering agents, which results in the desuppression of the normal corticotrophs, which might then respond to CRH (225). Since this technique does not reliably distinguish normal individuals, or those with pseudo-Cushingoid states, from Cushing’s disease (226), it is essential to confirm the presence of hypercortisolism before performing the test. This is of particular relevance when considering complications. Although the test is well tolerated, i.e., most patients experience slight discomfort in the ear while the catheters are being placed, adverse effects, when they do occur, may be catastrophic and have included brain stem vascular damage (227, 228, 229). Such rare complications appear to relate to catheter design and might be avoided by the immediate cessation of the procedure, and catheter withdrawal, at the onset of the slightest neurological symptom (229). Heparinization of patients is recommended (229), and in our experience of more than 120 procedures we have had only one serious complication, i.e., one patient suffered a nonfatal pulmonary embolus.

2. Cavernous sinus venous sampling. Teramoto and co-workers (242) have suggested that sampling directly from the cavernous sinuses, rather than the inferior petrosal sinuses, may improve diagnostic accuracy and obviate the need for the administration of CRH, an approach that has been used by others (243). However, Doppman and co-workers (236) have recently compared this technique in the same 15 patients with Cushing’s disease to that of basal and stimulated BIPSS, and found a false negative rate of 20% during cavernous sampling. Because of the added expense of the catheters required for cavernous sinus sampling, and potentially inferior results, this approach cannot be recommended at present.

3. Other approaches. Intuitively, selective venous sampling from a region that harbors a tumor ectopically secreting ACTH should be a rational and effective means of tumor localization. In practice, however, such an approach is usually unnecessary, although in certain instances it may be helpful (120). At other times misleading results may be obtained. Sampling from the thymic veins has been shown to have false positive results that resulted in inappropriate and ineffective thymectomy (244).

The use of selective preoperative bronchiolar lavage for the localization of ACTH-secreting bronchial carcinoid tumors has been reported with conflicting data. Although some report its diagnostic utility (132), in a series of seven patients, including six with proven ACTH-secreting bronchial carcinoid tumors, no ACTH was detected (245).

	VIII. Other Causes of Cushing’s Syndrome

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 
In addition to the ACTH-dependent and ACTH-independent causes of Cushing’s syndrome, there are some rare causes that traditionally do not easily fall into one classification. Adrenal macronodular hyperplasia is an unusual and poorly understood entity in which the adrenal glands are typically hyperplastic in the regions between nodules and may represent a transition between ACTH dependence and ACTH independence. Plasma ACTH levels may be low or undetectable, and an excessive cortisol response may be seen on CRH testing; there may also be less than 50% suppression on a HDDST causing confusing results (4, 13). Food-dependent Cushing’s syndrome is a very rare cause of ACTH-independent Cushing’s syndrome, which seems to be due to the presence of gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptors in the adrenal cortex that may cause massive macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (14); another cause of ACTH-independent Cushing’s syndrome is the ectopic presence of ß-adrenoreceptors responding inappropriately to circulating catecholamines (16). Primary pigmented nodular adrenal hyperplasia (PPNAD) tends to appear in the second decade of life, and in common with macronodular hyperplasia, it may present with low or undetectable levels of plasma ACTH and failure to suppress cortisol on a HDDST (13). It has previously been thought to be due to stimulating adrenal immunoglobulins (246, 247), and histopathologically is recognized by deeply pigmented nodules with intervening adrenal involution, distinguishing it from macronodular hyperplasia, while microscopically the cells have lipofuscin-laden cytoplasm (248). Although this may be a sporadic condition, it may also be associated with the autosomal dominantly inherited Carney complex, consisting of mesenchymal tumors, in particular atrial myxomas, pigmented skin lesions, and endocrine disorders including PPNAD peripheral nerve lesions (249). Since the gene for this complex has now been mapped to chromosome 2 (250), the hypothesis that circulating antibodies are the cause of sporadic PPNAD is highly questionable. Finally, constitutive activation of Gs in the adrenal may occur in McCune-Albright syndrome, resulting in autonomous hypercortisolemia.

	IX. Imaging

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 
A. Pituitary
In ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome, pituitary imaging is used to identify and localize the position of a pituitary microadenoma, and hence to guide initial surgical exploration. Computed tomography (CT) imaging most commonly reveals a hypodense lesion that usually fails to enhance with contrast administration (251). CT scanning does, however, have a poor sensitivity of 47% and a specificity of 74% for the identification of pituitary microadenomas in a review of nine studies including 278 patients with Cushing’s disease (127). Although initially very promising, gadolinium-diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid enhanced magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) offers only a modest improvement over CT scanning, with a sensitivity ranging from 50–60% (127, 197, 198, 252, 253, 254, 255). The majority of corticotroph microadenomas have a hypointense signal on MRI, which fails to enhance with gadolinium. However, since in approximately 5% of pituitary microadenomas the tumor will take up the gadolinium contrast medium giving an isointense signal on MRI, precontrast images are essential (96). Furthermore, since incidental pituitary adenomas have been reported in up to 27% of postmortem examinations (256), and in 10% of the 30- to 40-yr age group on MRI (196), any imaging result must be interpreted in the context of the biochemical evaluations discussed, as false positive results are possible. In some series, if a clear tumor is identified on MRI, the chances that the position disclosed on imaging will correlate with the surgical findings are in the region of 75–98% (216, 257); therefore, it has been suggested that it is similar or superior to BIPSS for localization (216). In contrast, one large series reported that in only 52% of 41 cases did the MRI correlate with the surgical findings (252). Thus, a significant number of pituitary microadenomas are not visualized on MRI and preoperative localization is not always possible by this technique. Furthermore, BIPSS is far from completely reliable for this purpose (discussed above). In an effort to improve localization, the use of intraoperative ultrasonography has recently been proposed (258, 259). In the most recent of these reports (259), 4 of 18 corticotroph microadenomas were clearly identified by preoperative MRI in a position that correlated with the surgical findings, while two further adenomas identified preoperatively were found at the time of surgery to be at a different site. In contrast, 13 of 18 were disclosed on intraoperative ultrasound as hyperechoic masses; this technique, which is very operator-dependent, had no complications. In this study no details were given of the results of BIPSS, but it appears from this small series that intraoperative ultrasound may prove useful in the localization of pituitary microadenomas and further highlights the limitations of MRI for this purpose.

B. Adrenal
Adrenal imaging plays an important role in the diagnostic workup. In many circumstances a cortisol-secreting adrenal tumor will be obvious. The distinction between adrenal adenoma and carcinoma is based on the evidence of vascular invasion or metastases, but tumors greater than 6 cm in diameter on scanning should be regarded as malignant (4). In a review of 13 studies Fig et al. (260) reported that 14 patients with adrenal carcinoma and 70 patients with adrenal adenoma causing Cushing’s syndrome were all correctly identified by computed tomography (CT) of the adrenal glands. Unfortunately, imaging is not always so clear-cut, and some degree of nodularity of the glands may be apparent (13). Since a unilateral cortisol-secreting adrenal tumor will result in suppression of ACTH secretion, the remaining ipsilateral and contralateral adrenal gland should be atrophic in appearance, and if any degree of hypertrophy is present, the possibility of asymmetric macronodular hyperplasia should be considered (261). Careful scrutiny of abdominal imaging is required to avoid the inappropriate unilateral excision of bilateral disease masquerading as an adrenal adenoma. Rarely, ACTH-independent massive macronodular adrenal hyperplasia (weighing 69–149 g) may be present on imaging with complete replacement of both adrenal glands, lack of a central to peripheral ACTH gradient on BIPSS, and an absence of an adenoma on MRI of the pituitary gland; in such cases bilateral adrenalectomy is indicated (96). However, macronodular hyperplasia may exist in Cushing’s disease, although usually with not so dramatic appearances, and in all cases of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome the adrenal glands may be bilaterally or unilaterally hyperplastic (261), with or without nodularity, although this may not be present in one third of cases (96). In such cases, further detailed and careful biochemical evaluation is crucial (vide supra).

C. Ectopic secretion
Small-cell lung cancer and bronchial carcinoid tumors are the most common source of ectopic ACTH secretion. Although the former is usually obvious, the latter may prove extremely difficult to localize (4, 9, 96). High-resolution CT scans may reveal small bronchial carcinoid lesions inapparent on plain radiography (Fig. 2) (7, 132, 262, 263), and since bronchial carcinoid tumors are usually 1 cm or less overlapping cuts of 1 cm or less should be employed (4)(Fig. 2). Small bronchial carcinoid tumors may, however, be confused with pulmonary vascular shadows. We have found that imaging the thorax in both supine and prone positions is a simple and extremely effective means of resolving this diagnostic difficulty, since vascular shadows change and tumors do not. MRI seems to be an improvement over CT for this purpose and results in improved discrimination: scanning in 10 patients with surgically proven bronchial carcinoid tumors demonstrated high signal intensity on T2-weighted and short-inversion-time inversion recovery images in all, while CT scanning was equivocal in two (264). Thymic carcinoid tumors causing Cushing’s syndrome are generally larger than 2 cm and readily visualized by CT (244). Although the most common site for an ectopic source of ACTH secretion is in the chest, many varied sites may ultimately be localized (Table 2). Therefore, it may be necessary to perform extensive CT scanning of the abdomen to disclose, in particular, pancreatic islet cell tumors, intestinal carcinoid tumors, and pheochromocytomas (262). Islet cell tumors causing Cushing’s syndrome are frequently large and have usually metastasized by the time of diagnosis and imaging (265), which presumably relates to the relatively late secretion of ACTH in the natural history of these tumors.

View larger version (124K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 2. Imaging of the thorax in the ectopic ACTH syndrome. A, Plain chest radiograph demonstrating suspicious lesion behind the left heart border (arrow). B and C, Axial and sagittal CT images demonstrating a bronchial carcinoid tumor (arrow) abutting the diaphragm. D, Three-dimensional reconstruction illustrating adherence of the tumor to the diaphragm (arrow), which was confirmed at surgery.

	X. Differentiation from Pseudo-Cushing’s States

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 
The differentiation between mild Cushing’s syndrome and pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome can prove extremely difficult and poses a considerable challenge to the physician. A pseudo-Cushing’s state may be defined as some or all of the clinical features that resemble true Cushing’s syndrome together with some evidence of hypercortisolism, but resolution of the underlying primary condition results in the disappearance of the Cushing’s-like state. Such findings may appear particularly in patients with depression and alcohol-induced pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome. The recently recognized heritable generalized glucocorticoid resistance, due to mutations in the ligand binding domain of the glucocorticoid receptor (269, 270, 271, 272), may also be a source of confusion. Since there is diminished feedback by glucocorticoids, the level of ACTH, and hence cortisol levels, is high. While some individuals may be asymptomatic, others may present with varying degrees of hypertension, with or without hypokalemia and weakness (272), through the action of salt-retaining steroids and the saturation of 11ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase by cortisol (118). Hyperandrogenism may exist because of the high ACTH drive, and in women this may cause particular diagnostic difficulty since the clinical features including acne, hirsutism, oligomenorrhea and amenorrhea, are often those seen in Cushing’s syndrome. However, the classic end-organ effects of glucocorticoid excess, including thinning of the skin, proximal myopathy, easy bruising, and early onset osteoporosis, are not usually present, and these features, as well as a family history, are therefore useful in the differentiation of these conditions. Furthermore, although resistance to dexamethasone will be observed, there is usually preservation of the normal circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion, albeit at a higher set point, and therefore circadian rhythm studies may be of use for purposes of differentiation.

The depression associated with Cushing’s syndrome has been reported as most typically being agitated in nature (92). Thus, such a history may aid the clinician, but is by no means invariable. Previous photographs may help to illustrate the progression of signs in patients with Cushing’s syndrome, while lack of such progression, especially over many years, is more in keeping with a pseudo-Cushing’s state. If the Cushingoid features and biochemistry are mild, and doubt exists as to the exact diagnosis, one approach is to treat the depression, with close clinical follow-up to establish whether or not the Cushingoid features resolve.

In both Cushing’s syndrome and pseudo-Cushing’s states there is prevailing hypercortisolemia, and hence there may be almost complete overlap between groups on basal 24-h UFC collections (58). When the results seen during investigation of individuals with Cushing’s syndrome and pseudo-Cushing’s states are compared directly, a value of UFC above 100 nmol/liter on the second day of a 48-h 2 mg/day LDDST gave a specificity of 100% and a sensitivity of 56% for the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome, while a 48-h plasma cortisol of 38 nmol/liter or more gave a specificity of 100% and a sensitivity of 90%. In contrast, although patients with depression usually demonstrate a blunted response to the administration of CRH, there is a large overlap with the responses seen in patients with Cushing’s disease, and thus testing with this peptide does not provide good discrimination (30, 122, 157, 273). In an effort to further improve diagnostic accuracy, it has recently been suggested that improved discrimination between Cushing’s syndrome and pseudo-Cushing’s states may be achieved by using a combined test with the administration of CRH after the 48-h, 2 mg/day LDDST, with a response to CRH being seen in individuals with Cushing’s syndrome but not in those with pseudo-Cushing’s states and a mild degree of hypercortisolism (58). In this retrospective study there was complete discrimination between patients with Cushing’s syndrome and pseudo-Cushing’s states, and it has thus been recommended for this purpose (274). Although the basal UFCs showed almost total overlap between Cushing’s syndrome and pseudo-Cushing’s groups (see above), emphasizing the similar biochemical pictures seen in these groups, with postinjection of CRH 100 µg iv, a plasma cortisol value at 15 min of greater than 38 nmol/liter (1.4 µg/dl) was seen in all patients with Cushing’s syndrome, but in none with a pseudo-Cushing’s state, giving it a sensitivity and specificity of 100%. It is interesting to note that the Cushing’s syndrome group comprised 35 patients with Cushing’s disease, 2 with the ectopic ACTH syndrome and 2 with primary adrenal pathology: there was complete overlap of plasma cortisol values at 15 min after CRH stimulation, and thus this test cannot be used for the differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. Furthermore, many plasma cortisol RIAs will have poor precision at this level of cortisol, and care is needed in application of this test. A prospective follow-up report on a further 98 patients resulted in a specificity of 96% and sensitivity of 98% since 2 patients were misclassified (275). It thus seems likely that, although imperfect, this may prove to be a useful test in differentiating Cushing’s syndrome from mild secondary hypercortisolism. Slightly inferior discrimination has been reported for a combined 1 mg overnight dexamethasone suppression test followed by a 10-IU LVP stimulation test during testing of 34 patients with Cushing’s syndrome, 18 normal controls, 4 depressed subjects, and 5 with a ‘Cushingoid’ appearance, with an 88.9% sensitivity and 100% specificity for Cushing’s syndrome (276).

In depressed patients, although there is often loss of suppression on a LDDST and a loss of the normal circadian rhythm of cortisol, there is usually a cortisol response to adequate insulin-induced hypoglycemia, while such a response is seen in only 18% of patients with Cushing’s syndrome (51, 87, 88, 277). In certain patients with pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome associated with depression, the insulin tolerance test may be useful, although overlap clearly exists. Because of the insulin resistance induced by elevated serum cortisol, the use of 0.3 U/kg iv of soluble insulin for the insulin tolerance test, if used, is recommended for this purpose (278).

The use of the opiate agonist loperamide has also been suggested for the purpose of discriminating between Cushing’s syndrome and pseudo-Cushing’s states. The test involves the oral administration of 16 mg loperamide at 0800 h, with plasma cortisol measured 3.5 h later. Loperamide causes the inhibition of CRH (279) and thus a suppression of plasma ACTH and cortisol in normal individuals but not in Cushing’s syndrome (280, 281, 282, 283). When available data from these reports are combined, a total of 49 patients with Cushing’s syndrome (42 with Cushing’s disease, 2 with the ectopic ACTH syndrome, and 5 with hyperfunctioning adrenal tumors) showed no suppression below 138 nmol/liter (5 µg/dl) in plasma cortisol, while 128 of 138 normal individuals, obese subjects, and individuals with pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome (including depression), suppressed below this level. Therefore, this gives the test a sensitivity of 100%, and a specificity of 93%, and as such it is comparable with the 1 mg overnight dexamethasone suppression test. It may prove particularly useful in the differentiation of Cushing’s syndrome from depressed individuals, since suppression on loperamide was documented in certain of these patients in whom there had been no suppression on dexamethasone testing. At present, the numbers of individuals with Cushing’s syndrome tested in this way remain small and more data are needed, especially on the responses seen in depressed individuals. The opiate antagonist naloxone has also been used for this purpose, with administration resulting in diminished stimulation in plasma ACTH and cortisol in patients with Cushing’s syndrome (284). The numbers in these studies are small, and further data are needed for formal evaluation of this approach. [Naloxone has also been used in BIPSS testing in small numbers of patients with Cushing’s disease (285).]

Recently, the use of desmopressin has been reported in a comparison between the effects seen on plasma ACTH and cortisol in women with Cushing’s disease, depressed women, and normal female controls (286). After administration of desmopressin 10 µg iv, 14 of 14 patients with Cushing’s disease exhibited a rise in plasma cortisol of 36% (4 times the intra-assay coefficient of variation), while such rises were seen in 2 of 20 normal subjects and 4 of 11 patients with depression. No systematic ACTH responses to this peptide were observed in normals or depressed patients, whereas a rise was seen in all the patients with Cushing’s disease; as such, the responses resemble those seen in this context after CRH administration (30, 122, 157). It should be noted, however, that some patients with Cushing’s disease fail to respond to desmopressin (186, 188, 192). Thus, it seems possible that differentiation between Cushing’s disease and depression, of high specificity but lower sensitivity for Cushing’s disease, may be made using this peptide on the ACTH, but not cortisol, responses.

Patients with alcohol-induced pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome may cause diagnostic difficulty, with biochemical evidence of hypercortisolemia, resistance to dexamethasone, and loss of the normal circadian rhythm of cortisol secretion (18, 19, 20, 21, 22). A detectable blood alcohol level will be of great use for discrimination from Cushing’s syndrome. Admission of the patient to an acute investigation ward may allow closer observation, and in patients with alcohol-induced pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome, the sleeping midnight plasma cortisol value has been shown to become undetectable within 5 days, effectively excluding Cushing’s syndrome (18).

	XI. Conclusions

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 
From the above discussion it is clear that many approaches are used in the diagnosis and differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome, with some being more valid than others. Ideally, the minimum number of investigations should be employed that allow accurate diagnosis and further management, and if at all possible these should be noninvasive. Since no single test is perfect, combinations of tests are employed to build up an overall picture, as even invasive investigations such as BIPSS fail to yield 100% diagnostic accuracy. Since Cushing’s syndrome has a high morbidity and mortality, and the accuracy of diagnosis is paramount, we would argue that more, rather than fewer, tests should be employed in any given patient, as they may not fit the statistical sensitivities and specificities detailed above. Moreover, we regard the investigation as urgent, and to ensure complete diagnostic rigor we routinely admit patients to our acute investigation ward for their initial and subsequent diagnostic work-up. We believe that such an approach, although more expensive in the short term, stands a greater chance of success in each individual patient.

Biochemical confirmation of Cushing’s syndrome is best achieved through the use of the 48-h, 2 mg/day LDDST, sleeping midnight plasma cortisol, and UFC measurements. Our routine practice uses the LDDST and midnight plasma cortisol assessment. In cases of doubt, and subtle hypercortisolemia, the LDDST-CRH test or the loperamide test may be useful.

Once Cushing’s syndrome is confirmed biochemically, measurement of ACTH is required by either a sensitive RIA or IRMA. If ACTH is undetectable, attention may then be turned to the adrenal. If ACTH is clearly detectable, many physicians may opt to proceed directly to BIPSS and pituitary imaging, with subsequent imaging being determined by the results of these investigations. An alternative strategy is to perform BIPSS only in cases in which the results of the HDDST (the 8 mg/day, 48-h test is superior to the 8-mg overnight test), CRH test, or CRH plus desmopressin test are equivocal, especially if a pituitary lesion is visible on imaging, and CT or MRI of the chest is normal. Confirmation of a central source of ACTH on BIPSS is extremely reassuring, particularly in cases where early reoperation is necessary with a view to total hypophysectomy, considering the long-term morbidity of hypopituitarism and the recently established adverse effects of adult GH deficiency. Therefore, it is our policy to rely most heavily on the results of BIPSS, which is performed in most patients with ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome.

All functional and physical modalities for the preoperative lateralization of a pituitary microadenoma are, unfortunately, disappointing. It is clear that complete examination by an experienced surgeon of the entire pituitary gland may be necessary if the tumor is not immediately encountered, and intraoperative ultrasound may prove in the future to be a valuable aid in this respect. In the absence of a clearly visible pituitary lesion, hemihypophysectomy on the basis of BIPSS data may not yield a surgical cure. Figure 3 illustrates a possible diagnostic approach that encompasses a direct route via BIPSS but also emphasizes peripheral testing.

View larger version (32K): [in this window] [in a new window]   Figure 3. A diagnostic approach to the diagnosis and differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome.

	Footnotes

 
Address reprint requests to: Professor Ashley Grossman, Department of Endocrinology, St. Bartholomew’s Hospital, West Smithfield, London, EC1A 7BE, United Kingdom. E-mail: a.b.grossman{at}mds.qmw.ac.uk

¹ Supported by the Medical Research Council UK.

	References

Top Abstract I. Introduction II. Definitions and Etiology III. Diagnostic Overview IV. Clinical Features V. Biochemical Diagnosis of... VI. ACTH-Dependent vs. ACTH... VII. Differential Diagnosis of... VIII. Other Causes of... IX. Imaging X. Differentiation from Pseudo... XI. Conclusions References

 

1. Cushing HW 1912 The Pituitary Body and Its Disorders. JB Lippincott, Philadelphia
2. Cushing HW 1932 The basophil adenomas of the pituitary body and their clinical manifestations (pituitary basophilism). Bull Johns Hopkins Hosp 50:137–95
3. Leibowitz G, Tsur A, Chayen SD, Salameh M, Raz I, Cerasi E, Gross DJ 1996 Pre-clinical Cushing’s syndrome: an unexpected frequent cause of poor glycaemic control in obese diabetic patients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 44:717–722[CrossRef][Medline]
4. Trainer PJ, Grossman A 1991 The diagnosis and differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 34:317–330[Medline]
5. Aron DC, Findling JW, Tyrrell JB 1987 Cushing’s disease. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 16:705–730[Medline]
6. Orth DN 1995 Cushing’s syndrome. N Engl J Med 332:791–803[Free Full Text]
7. Findling JW, Tyrrell JB 1986 Occult ectopic secretion of corticotropin. Arch Intern Med 146:929–933[Abstract/Free Full Text]
8. Delisle L, Boyer MJ, Warr D, Killinger D, Payne D, Yeoh JL, Feld R 1993 Ectopic corticotropin syndrome and small-cell carcinoma of the lung. Clinical features, outcome, and complications. Arch Intern Med 153:746–752[Abstract/Free Full Text]
9. Wajchenberg BL, Mendonca BB, Liberman B, Pereira MA, Carneiro PC, Wakamatsu A, Kirschner MA 1994 Ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone syndrome. Endocr Rev 15:752–787[Abstract/Free Full Text]
10. Upton GV, Amatruda Jr TT 1971 Evidence for the presence of tumor peptides with corticotropin-releasing-factor-like activity in the ectopic ACTH syndrome. N Engl J Med 285:419–424
11. Carey RM, Varma SK, Drake Jr CR, Thorner MO, Kovacs K, Rivier J, Vale W 1984 Ectopic secretion of corticotropin-releasing factor as a cause of Cushing’s syndrome. A clinical, morphologic, and biochemical study. N Engl J Med 311:13–20[Abstract]
12. Muller OA, von Werder K 1992 Ectopic production of ACTH and corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH). J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 43:403–408[CrossRef][Medline]
13. Samuels MH, Loriaux DL 1994 Cushing’s syndrome and the nodular adrenal gland. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 23:555–569[Medline]
14. Lacroix A, Bolte E, Tremblay J, Dupre J, Poitras P, Fournier H, Garon J, Garrel D, Bayard F, Taillefer R, Flanagan RJ, Hamet P 1992 Gastric inhibitory polypeptide-dependent cortisol hypersecretion–a new cause of Cushing’s syndrome. N Engl J Med 327:974–980[Abstract]
15. de Herder WW, Hofland LJ, Usdin TB, de Jong FH, Uitterlinden P, van Koetsveld P, Mezey E, Bonner TI, Bonjer HJ, Lamberts SW 1996 Food-dependent Cushing’s syndrome resulting from abundant expression of gastric inhibitory polypeptide receptors in adrenal adenoma cells. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:3168–3172[Abstract]
16. Lacroix A, Tremblay J, Rousseau G, Bouvier M, Hamet P 1997 Propanolol therapy for ectopic beta-adrenergic receptors in adrenal Cushing’s syndrome. N Engl J Med 337:1429–1434[Free Full Text]
17. Mauras N, Blizzard RM 1986 The McCune-Albright syndrome. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) [Suppl] 279:207–217[Medline]
18. Rees LH, Besser GM, Jeffcoate WJ, Goldie DJ, Marks V 1977 Alcohol-induced pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome. Lancet 1:726–728[CrossRef][Medline]
19. Groote Veldman R, Meinders AE 1996 On the mechanism of alcohol-induced pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome. Endocr Rev 17:262–268[Abstract/Free Full Text]
20. Jeffcoate W 1993 Alcohol-induced pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome. Lancet 341:676–677[CrossRef][Medline]
21. Kapcala LP 1987 Alcohol-induced pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome mimicking Cushing’s disease in a patient with an adrenal mass. Am J Med 82:849–856[CrossRef][Medline]
22. Lamberts SW, Klijn JG, de Jong FH, Birkenhager JC 1979 Hormone secretion in alcohol-induced pseudo-Cushing’s syndrome. Differential diagnosis with Cushing disease. JAMA 242:1640–1643[Abstract/Free Full Text]
23. Kelly WF, Checkley SA, Bender DA 1980 Cushing’s syndrome, tryptophan and depression. Br J Psychiatry 136:125–132[Abstract/Free Full Text]
24. Gold PW, Chrousos GP 1985 Clinical studies with corticotropin releasing factor: implications for the diagnosis and pathophysiology of depression, Cushing’s disease, and adrenal insufficiency. Psychoneuroendocrinology 10:401–419[CrossRef][Medline]
25. Stokes PE 1995 The potential role of excessive cortisol induced by HPA hyperfunction in the pathogenesis of depression. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 5[Suppl]:77–82
26. Gold PW, Licinio J, Wong ML, Chrousos GP 1995 Corticotropin releasing hormone in the pathophysiology of melancholic and atypical depression and in the mechanism of action of antidepressant drugs. Ann NY Acad Sci 771:716–729[Medline]
27. Koelz A, Girard J 1976 Cushing’s syndrome or obesity. Bilateral adrenal hyperplasia in a boy 10 years of age. Eur J Pediatr 121:237–246[CrossRef][Medline]
28. Kreze A, Veleminsky J, Spirova E 1985 Low-dose dexamethasone suppression of urinary free cortisol in the differential diagnosis between Cushing’s syndrome and obesity. Klin Wochenschr 63:188–189[CrossRef][Medline]
29. Abou Samra AB, Dechaud H, Estour B, Chalendar D, Fevre-Montange M, Pugeat M, Tourniaire J 1985 Beta-lipotropin and cortisol responses to an intravenous infusion dexamethasone suppression test in Cushing’s syndrome and obesity. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 61:116–119[Abstract/Free Full Text]
30. Grossman A, Howlett TA, Kopelman PG 1987 The use of CRF-41 in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome and obesity. Horm Metab Res [Suppl] 16:62–64[Medline]
31. Kopelman PG 1994 Hormones and obesity. Baillieres Clin Endocrinol Metab 8:549–575[CrossRef][Medline]
32. Peeke PM, Chrousos GP 1995 Hypercortisolism and obesity. Ann NY Acad Sci 771:665–676[Medline]
33. Tsagarakis S, Kokkoris P, Roboti C, Malagari C, Kaskarelis J, Vlassopoulou V, Alevizaki C, Thalassinos N 1998 The low-dose dexamethasone suppression test in patients with adrenal incidentalomas: comparisons with clinically euadrenal subjects and patients with Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 48:627–634[CrossRef][Medline]
34. Newell-Price J, Grossman A 1996 Adrenal incidentaloma: subclinical Cushing’s syndrome. Postgrad Med J 72:207–210[Abstract/Free Full Text]
35. Kloos RT, Gross MD, Francis IR, Korobkin M, Shapiro B 1995 Incidentally discovered adrenal masses. Endocr Rev 16:460–484[Abstract/Free Full Text]
36. Ross EJ, Marshall-Jones P, Friedman M 1966 Cushing’s syndrome: diagnostic criteria. Q J Med 35:149–192[Free Full Text]
37. Ross EJ, Linch DC 1982 Cushing’s syndrome-killing disease: discriminatory value of signs and symptoms aiding early diagnosis. Lancet 2:646–649[CrossRef][Medline]
38. Yanovski JA, Cutler Jr GB 1994 Glucocorticoid action and the clinical features of Cushing’s syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 23:487–509[Medline]
39. Magiakou MA, Mastorakos G, Oldfield EH, Gomez MT, Doppman JL, Cutler Jr GB, Nieman LK, Chrousos GP 1994 Cushing’s syndrome in children and adolescents. Presentation, diagnosis, and therapy. N Engl J Med 331:629–636[Abstract/Free Full Text]
40. Weber A, Trainer PJ, Grossman AB, Afshar F, Medbak S, Perry LA, Plowman PN, Rees LH, Besser GM, Savage MO 1995 Investigation, management and therapeutic outcome in 12 cases of childhood and adolescent Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 43:19–28[Medline]
41. Bickler SW, McMahon TJ, Campbell JR, Mandel S, Piatt JH, Harrison MW 1994 Preoperative diagnostic evaluation of children with Cushing’s syndrome. J Pediatr Surg 29:671–676[CrossRef][Medline]
42. Leinung MC, Zimmerman D 1994 Cushing’s disease in children. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 23:629–639[Medline]
43. Plotz C, Knowlton A, Ragan C 1952 The natural history of Cushing’s syndrome. Am J Med 13:597–614[CrossRef][Medline]
44. Sprague RG, Randall RV, Salassa RM, Scholz DA, Priestly JT, Walters W, Bulbulian AH 1956 Cushing’s syndrome: a progressive and often fatal disease. A review of 100 cases seen between July 1945 and July 1954. Arch Intern Med 98:389–398
45. Soffer L, Iannaccone A, Gabrilove J 1961 Cushing’s syndrome: a study of fifty patients. Arch Intern Med 300:215–219
46. Urbanic RC, George JM 1981 Cushing’s disease-18 years’ experience. Medicine (Baltimore) 60:14–24[CrossRef][Medline]
47. Atkinson AB, Kennedy AL, Carson DJ, Hadden DR, Weaver JA, Sheridan B 1985 Five cases of cyclical Cushing’s syndrome. Br Med J 291:1453–1457
48. Bailey RE 1971 Periodic hormonogenesis–a new phenomenon. Periodicity in function of a hormone-producing tumor in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 32:317–327[Abstract/Free Full Text]
49. Popovic V, Micic D, Nesovic M, Howlett T, Doniach I, Kendereski A, Djordjevic P, Manojlovic D, Micic J, Besser M 1990 Cushing’s disease cycling over ten years. Exp Clin Endocrinol 96:143–148[Medline]
50. Meador CK, Liddle GW, Island DP, Nicholson WE, Lucas CP, Nuckton JG, Leutscher JA 1962 Cause of Cushing’s syndrome in patients with tumors arising from ’non-endocrine’ tissue. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 22:693–703
51. Crapo L 1979 Cushing’s syndrome: a review of diagnostic tests. Metabolism 28:955–977[CrossRef][Medline]
52. Orth DN 1994 The Cushing syndrome: quest for the Holy Grail. Ann Intern Med 121:377–378[Free Full Text]
53. Contreras LN, Hane S, Tyrrell JB 1986 Urinary cortisol in the assessment of pituitary-adrenal function: utility of 24-hour and spot determinations. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 62:965–969[Abstract/Free Full Text]
54. Mengden T, Hubmann P, Muller J, Greminger P, Vetter W 1992 Urinary free cortisol vs. 17-hydroxycorticosteroids: a comparative study of their diagnostic value in Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Invest 70:545–548[Medline]
55. Nieman LK, Cutler Jr GB The sensitivity of the urine free cortisol measurement as a screening test for Cushing’s syndrome. Program of the 72nd Annual Meeeting of The Endocrine Society, Atlanta GA, 1990 (Abstract P-822)
56. Carroll BJ, Curtis GC, Davies BM, Mendels J, Sugerman AA 1976 Urinary free cortisol excretion in depression. Psychol Med 6:43–50[Medline]
57. Cizza G, Nieman LK, Doppman JL, Passaro MD, Czerwiec FS, Chrousos GP, Cutler Jr GB 1996 Factitious Cushing syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:3573–3577[Abstract]
58. Yanovski JA, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP, Nieman LK 1993 Corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation following low-dose dexamethasone administration. A new test to distinguish Cushing’s syndrome from pseudo-Cushing’s states. JAMA 269:2232–2238[Abstract/Free Full Text]
59. Lin CL, Wu TJ, Machacek DA, Jiang NS, Kao PC 1997 Urinary free cortisol and cortisone determined by high performance liquid chromatography in the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:151–155[Abstract/Free Full Text]
60. Liddle GW 1960 Tests of pituitary-adrenal suppressibility in the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab:1539–1560
61. Nugent CA, Nichols T, Tyler FH 1965 Diagnosis of Cushing’ syndrome-single dose dexamethasone. Arch Intern Med 116:172–176
62. Montwill J, Igoe D, McKenna TJ 1994 The overnight dexamethasone test is the procedure of choice in screening for Cushing’s syndrome. Steroids 59:296–298[CrossRef][Medline]
63. Cronin C, Igoe D, Duffy MJ, Cunningham SK, McKenna TJ 1990 The overnight dexamethasone test is a worthwhile screening procedure. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 33:27–33[Medline]
64. Blethen SL, Chasalow FI 1989 Overnight dexamethasone suppression test: normal responses and the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Steroids 54:185–193[CrossRef][Medline]
65. Wood PJ, Barth JH, Freedman DB, Perry L, Sheridan B 1997 Evidence for the low dose dexamethasone suppression test to screen for Cushing’s syndrome–recommendations for a protocol for biochemistry laboratories. Ann Clin Biochem 34:222–229
66. Hankin ME, Theile HM, Steinbeck AW 1977 An evaluation of laboratory tests for the detection and differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 6:185–196[Medline]
67. Kennedy L, Atkinson AB, Johnston H, Sheridan B, Hadden DR 1984 Serum cortisol concentrations during low dose dexamethasone suppression test to screen for Cushing’s syndrome. Br Med J 289:1188–1191
68. Newell-Price J, Trainer P, Perry L, Wass J, Grossman A, Besser M 1995 A single sleeping midnight cortisol has 100% sensitivity for the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 43:545–550[Medline]
69. Yanovski JA, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP, Nieman LK 1998 The dexamethasone-suppressed corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test differentiates mild Cushing’s disease from normal physiology. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:348–352[Abstract/Free Full Text]
70. Meikle AW 1982 Dexamethasone suppression tests: usefulness of simultaneous measurement of plasma cortisol and dexamethasone. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 16:401–408[Medline]
71. Kapcala LP, Hamilton SM, Meikle AW 1984 Cushing’s disease with ’normal suppression’ due to decreased dexamethasone clearance. Arch Intern Med 144:636–637[Abstract/Free Full Text]
72. Atkinson AB, McAteer EJ, Hadden DR, Kennedy L, Sheridan B, Traub AI 1989 A weight-related intravenous dexamethasone suppression test distinguishes obese controls from patients with Cushing’s syndrome. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 120:753–759[Abstract/Free Full Text]
73. Jubiz W, Meikle AW, Levinson RA, Mizutani S, West CD, Tyler FH 1970 Effect of diphenylhydantoin on the metabolism of dexamethasone. N Engl J Med 283:11–14
74. Putignano P, Kaltsas MA, Satta MA, Grossman AB 1998 The effects of anti-convulsant drugs on adrenal function. Horm Metab Res 30:389–387[Medline]
75. Tiller JW, Maguire KP, Schweitzer I, Biddle N, Campbell DG, Outch K, Davies BM 1988 The dexamethasone suppression test: a study in a normal population. Psychoneuroendocrinology 13:377–384[CrossRef][Medline]
76. Doe RP, Vennes JA, Flink EB 1960 Diurnal variation of 17-hydroxycorticosteroids, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and creatinine in normal subjects and in cases of treated adrenal insufficiency and Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 30:253–265
77. Krieger DT, Allen W, Rizzo F, Krieger HP 1971 Characterization of the normal temporal pattern of plasma corticosteroid levels. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 32:266–284[Abstract/Free Full Text]
78. Sederberg-Olsen P, Binder C, Kehlet H, Neville AM, Nielsen LM 1973 Episodic variation in plasma corticosteroids in subjects with Cushing’s syndrome of differing etiology. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 36:906–910[Abstract/Free Full Text]
79. Hagen C, Kehlet H, Binder C 1978 Diurnal variation in plasma cortisol and prolactin in patients with Cushing’s syndrome. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 88:737–743[Abstract/Free Full Text]
80. Boyar RM, Witkin M, Carruth A, Ramsey J 1979 Circadian cortisol secretory rhythms in Cushing’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 48:760–765[Abstract/Free Full Text]
81. Hellman L, Weitzman ED, Roffwarg H, Fukushima DK, Yoshida K 1970 Cortisol is secreted episodically in Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 30:686–689[Abstract/Free Full Text]
82. Glass AR, Zavadil III AP, Halberg F, Cornelissen G, Schaaf M 1984 Circadian rhythm of serum cortisol in Cushing’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 59:161–165[Abstract/Free Full Text]
83. Van Cauter E, Refetoff S 1985 Evidence for two subtypes of Cushing’s disease based on the analysis of episodic cortisol secretion. N Engl J Med 312:1343–1349[Abstract]
84. Eddy RL, Jones AL, Gilliland PF, Ibarra Jr JD, Thompson JQ, MacMurry Jr JF 1973 Cushing’s syndrome: a prospective study of diagnostic methods. Am J Med 55:621–630[CrossRef][Medline]
85. Howlett TA, Drury PL, Perry L, Doniach I, Rees LH, Besser GM 1986 Diagnosis and management of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome: comparison of the features in ectopic and pituitary ACTH production. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 24:699–713[Medline]
86. Laudat MH, Billaud L, Thomopoulos P, Vera O, Yllia A, Luton JP 1988 Evening urinary free corticoids: a screening test in Cushing’s syndrome and incidentally discovered adrenal tumours. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 119:459–464[Abstract/Free Full Text]
87. Besser GM, Edwards CRW 1972 Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol Metab 1:451–490[CrossRef]
88. Butler PW, Besser GM 1968 Pituitary-adrenal function in severe depressive illness. Lancet 1:1234–1236[CrossRef][Medline]
89. Pfohl B, Sherman B, Schlechte J, Stone R 1985 Pituitary-adrenal axis rhythm disturbances in psychiatric depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 42:897–903[Abstract/Free Full Text]
90. Ross RJ, Miell JP, Holly JM, Maheshwari H, Norman M, Abdulla AF, Buchanan CR 1991 Levels of GH binding activity, IGFBP-1, insulin, blood glucose and cortisol in intensive care patients. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 35:361–367[Medline]
91. Papanicolaou DA, Yanovski JA, Cutler GB, Chrousos GP, Nieman LK A single midnight cortisol measurement discriminates Cushing’s syndrome from pseudo-Cushing’s states. Program of the 76th Annual Meeting of The Endocrine Society, Anaheim CA, 1994 (Abstract P-1270)
92. Musselman DL, Nemeroff CB 1996 Depression and endocrine disorders: focus on the thyroid and adrenal system. Br J Psychiatry Suppl 30:123–128
93. Mosnier-Pudar H, Thomopoulos P, Bertagna X, Fournier C, Guiban D, Luton JP 1995 Long-distance and long-term follow-up of a patient with intermittent Cushing’s disease by salivary cortisol measurements. Eur J Endocrinol 133:313–316[Abstract/Free Full Text]
94. Lytras N, Grossman A, Perry L, Tomlin S, Wass JA, Coy DH, Schally AV, Rees LH, Besser GM 1984 Corticotrophin releasing factor: responses in normal subjects and patients with disorders of the hypothalamus and pituitary. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 20:71–84[Medline]
95. Raff H, Findling JW 1989 A new immunoradiometric assay for corticotropin evaluated in normal subjects and patients with Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Chem 35:596–600[Abstract/Free Full Text]
96. Findling JW, Doppman JL 1994 Biochemical and radiologic diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 23:511–537[Medline]
97. De Keyzer Y, Clauser E, Bertagna X 1996 The pituitary V3 vasopressin receptor and the ectopic ACTH syndrome. Curr Opin Endocrinol Diabetes 3:125–131
98. Sonino N, Zielezny M, Fava GA, Fallo F, Boscaro M 1996 Risk factors and long-term outcome in pituitary-dependent Cushing’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:2647–2652[Abstract]
99. Trainer PJ, Lawrie HS, Verhelst J, Howlett TA, Lowe DG, Grossman AB, Savage MO, Afshar F, Besser GM 1993 Transsphenoidal resection in Cushing’s disease: undetectable serum cortisol as the definition of successful treatment. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 38:73–78[Medline]
100. Guilhaume B, Bertagna X, Thomsen M, Bricaire C, Vila-Porcile E, Olivier L, Racadot J, Derome P, Laudat MH, Girard F, Bricaire H, Luton JP 1988 Transsphenoidal pituitary surgery for the treatment of Cushing’s disease: results in 64 patients and long term follow-up studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 66:1056–1064[Abstract/Free Full Text]
101. Lamberts SW, van der Lely AJ, de Herder WW 1995 Transsphenoidal selective adenomectomy is the treatment of choice in patients with Cushing’s disease. Considerations concerning preoperative medical treatment and the long-term follow-up. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:3111–3113[CrossRef][Medline]
102. Bakiri F, Tatai S, Aouali R, Semrouni M, Derome P, Chitour F, Benmiloud M 1996 Treatment of Cushing’s disease by transsphenoidal, pituitary microsurgery: prognosis factors and long-term follow-up. J Endocrinol Invest 19:572–580[Medline]
103. Tyrrell JB, Wilson CB 1994 Cushing’s disease. Therapy of pituitary adenomas. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am 23:925–938[Medline]
104. Dyer EH, Civit T, Visot A, Delalande O, Derome P 1994 Transsphenoidal surgery for pituitary adenomas in children. Neurosurgery 34:207–212[Medline]
105. Ram Z, Nieman LK, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP, Doppman JL, Oldfield EH 1994 Early repeat surgery for persistent Cushing’s disease. J Neurosurg 80:37–45[Medline]
106. Tindall GT, Herring CJ, Clark RV, Adams DA, Watts NB 1990 Cushing’s disease: results of transsphenoidal microsurgery with emphasis on surgical failures. J Neurosurg 72:363–369[Medline]
107. Nakane T, Kuwayama A, Watanabe M, Takahashi T, Kato T, Ichihara K, Kageyama N 1987 Long term results of transsphenoidal adenomectomy in patients with Cushing’s disease. Neurosurgery 21:218–222[Medline]
108. Fahlbusch R, Buchfelder M, Muller OA 1986 Transsphenoidal surgery for Cushing’s disease. J R Soc Med 79:262–269[Abstract]
109. Howlett TA, Rees LH, Besser GM 1985 Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol Metab 14:911–945[Medline]
110. Boggan JE, Tyrrell JB, Wilson CB 1983 Transsphenoidal microsurgical management of Cushing’s disease. Report of 100 cases. J Neurosurg 59:195–200[Medline]
111. Pass HI, Doppman JL, Nieman L, Stovroff M, Vetto J, Norton JA, Travis W, Chrousos GP, Oldfield EH, Cutler Jr GB 1990 Management of the ectopic ACTH syndrome due to thoracic carcinoids. Ann Thorac Surg 50:52–57[Abstract]
112. Himsworth RL, Bloomfield GA, Coombes RC, Ellison M, Gilkes JJ, Lowry PJ, Setchell KD, Slavin G, Rees LH 1977 ’Big ACTH’ and calcitonin in an ectopic hormone secreting tumour of the liver. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 7:45–62[Medline]
113. Stewart PM, Gibson S, Crosby SR, Penn R, Holder R, Ferry D, Thatcher N, Phillips P, London DR, White A 1994 ACTH precursors characterize the ectopic ACTH syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 40:199–204[Medline]
114. White A, Gibson S 1998 ACTH precusors: biological significance and clinical relevance. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 48:251–256[CrossRef][Medline]
115. Fuller PJ, Lim AT, Barlow JW, White EL, Khalid BA, Copolov DL, Lolait S, Funder JW, Stockigt JR 1984 A pituitary tumor producing high molecular weight adrenocorticotropin-related peptides: clinical and cell culture studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 58:134–42[Abstract/Free Full Text]
116. Gibson S, Ray DW, Crosby SR, Dornan TL, Jennings AM, Bevan JS, Davis JR, White A 1996 Impaired processing of proopiomelanocortin in corticotroph macroadenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:497–502[Abstract]
117. Raffin-Sanson ML, Massias JF, Dumont C, Raux-Demay MC, Proeschel MF, Luton JP, Bertagna X 1996 High plasma proopiomelanocortin in aggressive adrenocorticotropin-secreting tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:4272–4277[Abstract]
118. Stewart PM, Walker BR, Holder G, O’Halloran D, Shackleton CH 1995 11 Beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity in Cushing’s syndrome: explaining the mineralocorticoid excess state of the ectopic adrenocorticotropin syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:3617–3620[Abstract]
119. Howlett TA, Rees LH 1985 Is it possible to diagnose pituitary-dependent Cushing’s disease? Ann Clin Biochem 22:550–558
120. Howlett TA, Price J, Hale AC, Doniach I, Rees LH, Wass JA, Besser G M 1985 Pituitary ACTH dependent Cushing’s syndrome due to ectopic production of a bombesin-like peptide by a medullary carcinoma of the thyroid. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 22:91–101[Medline]
121. Howlett TA, Grossman A, Rees LH, Besser GM 1986 Differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Lancet 2:871
122. Grossman AB, Howlett TA, Perry L, Coy DH, Savage MO, Lavender P, Rees LH, Besser GM 1988 CRF in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome: a comparison with the dexamethasone suppression test. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 29:167–178[Medline]
123. Dichek HL, Nieman LK, Oldfield EH, Pass HI, Malley JD, Cutler Jr GB 1994 A comparison of the standard high dose dexamethasone suppression test and the overnight 8-mg dexamethasone suppression test for the differential diagnosis of adrenocorticotropin-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:418–422[Abstract]
124. Flack MR, Oldfield EH, Cutler Jr GB, Zweig MH, Malley JD, Chrousos GP, Loriaux DL, Nieman LK 1992 Urine free cortisol in the high-dose dexamethasone suppression test for the differential diagnosis of the Cushing syndrome. Ann Intern Med 116:211–217
125. Tyrrell JB, Findling JW, Aron DC, Fitzgerald PA, Forsham PH 1986 An overnight high-dose dexamethasone suppression test for rapid differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Ann Intern Med 104:180–186
126. Bruno OD, Rossi MA, Contreras LN, Gomez RM, Galparsoro G, Cazado E, Kral M, Leber B, Arias D 1985 Nocturnal high-dose dexamethasone suppression test in the aetiological diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 109:158–162[Abstract/Free Full Text]
127. Kaye TB, Crapo L 1990 The Cushing syndrome: an update on diagnostic tests. Ann Intern Med 112:434–444
128. Meikle AW, Lagerquist LG, Tyler FH 1975 Apparently normal pituitary-adrenal suppressibility in Cushing’s syndrome: dexamethasone metabolism and plasma levels. J Lab Clin Med 86:472–478[Medline]
129. Croughs RJ, Docter R, de Jong FH 1973 Comparison of oral and intravenous dexamethasone suppression tests in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 72:54–62[Abstract/Free Full Text]
130. Biemond P, de Jong FH, Lamberts SW 1990 Continuous dexamethasone infusion for seven hours in patients with the Cushing syndrome. A superior differential diagnostic test. Ann Intern Med 112:738–742
131. Hermus AR, Pieters GF, Pesman GJ, Smals AG, Benraad TJ, Kloppenborg PW 1986 The corticotropin-releasing-hormone test vs. the high-dose dexamethasone test in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Lancet 2:540–544[CrossRef][Medline]
132. Findling JW, Kehoe ME, Shaker JL, Raff H 1991 Routine inferior petrosal sinus sampling in the differential diagnosis of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)-dependent Cushing’s syndrome: early recognition of the occult ectopic ACTH syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 73:408–413[Abstract/Free Full Text]
133. Aron DC, Raff H, Findling JW 1997 Effectiveness vs. efficacy: the limited value in clinical practice of high dose dexamethasone suppression testing in the differential diagnosis of adrenocorticotropin-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:1780–1785[Abstract/Free Full Text]
134. Liddle GW, Estep HL, Kendall JWJ, Williams WCJ, Townes AW 1959 Clinical application of a new test of pituitary reserve. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 19:875–894
135. Carballeira A, Fishman LM, Jacobi JD 1976 Dual sites of inhibition by metyrapone of human adrenal steroidogenesis: correlation of in vivo and in vitro studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 42:687–695[Abstract/Free Full Text]
136. Weiss ER, Rayyis SS, Nelson DH, Bethune JE 1969 Evaluation of stimulation and suppression tests in the etiological diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Ann Intern Med 71:941–949
137. Strott CA, Nugent CA, Tyler FH 1968 Cushing’s syndrome caused by bronchial adenomas. Am J Med 44:97–104[CrossRef][Medline]
138. Sindler BH, Griffing GT, Melby JC 1983 The superiority of the metyrapone test vs. the high-dose dexamethasone test in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Am J Med 74:657–662[CrossRef][Medline]
139. Mason AM, Ratcliffe JG, Buckle RM, Mason AS 1972 ACTH secretion by bronchial carcinoid tumours. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 1:3–25[Medline]
140. Jex RK, van Heerden JA, Carpenter PC, Grant CS 1985 Ectopic ACTH syndrome. Diagnostic and therapeutic aspects. Am J Surg 149:276–282[CrossRef][Medline]
141. Blunt SB, Sandler LM, Burrin JM, Joplin GF 1990 An evaluation of the distinction of ectopic and pituitary ACTH dependent Cushing’s syndrome by clinical features, biochemical tests and radiological findings. Q J Med 77:1113–1133[Abstract/Free Full Text]
142. Leinung MC, Young Jr WF, Whitaker MD, Scheithauer BW, Trastek VF, Kvols LK 1990 Diagnosis of corticotropin-producing bronchial carcinoid tumors causing Cushing’s syndrome. Mayo Clin Proc 65:1314–1321[Medline]
143. Avgerinos PC, Yanovski JA, Oldfield EH, Nieman LK, Cutler Jr GB 1994 The metyrapone and dexamethasone suppression tests for the differential diagnosis of the adrenocorticotropin-dependent Cushing syndrome: a comparison. Ann Intern Med 121:318–327[Abstract/Free Full Text]
144. Hermus AR, Pieters GF, Pesman GJ, Smals AG, Benraad TJ, Kloppenborg PW 1986 Responsivity of adrenocorticotropin to corticotropin-releasing hormone and lack of suppressibility by dexamethasone are related phenomena in Cushing’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 62:634–639[Abstract/Free Full Text]
145. Meikle AW, Jubiz W, Hutchings MP, West CD, Tyler FH 1969 A simplified metyrapone test with determination of plasma ll-deoxycortisol (metyrapone test with plasma S). J Clin Endocrinol Metab 29:985–987[Free Full Text]
146. Sparks LL, Smilo RP, Pavlatos FC, Forsham PH 1969 Experience with a rapid oral metyrapone test and the plasma ACTH content in determining the cause of Cushing’s syndrome. Metabolism 18:175–192[CrossRef][Medline]
147. Tucci JR 1975 Metyrapone test in Cushing’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 40:521–523[Abstract/Free Full Text]
148. Spiger M, Jubiz W, Meikle AW, West CD, Tylor FH 1975 Single-dose metyrapone test: review of a four-year experience. Arch Intern Med 135:698–700[Abstract/Free Full Text]
149. Avgerinos PC, Nieman LK, Oldfield EH, Cutler Jr GB 1996 A comparison of the overnight and the standard metyrapone test for the differential diagnosis of adrenocorticotrophin-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 45:483–491[CrossRef][Medline]
150. Vale W, Spiess J, Rivier C, Rivier J 1981 Characterization of a 41-residue ovine hypothalamic peptide that stimulates secretion of corticotropin and beta-endorphin. Science 213:1394–1397[Free Full Text]
151. Dickstein G, DeBold CR, Gaitan D, DeCherney GS, Jackson RV, Sheldon WR J, Nicholson WE, Orth DN 1996 Plasma corticotropin and cortisol responses to ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), arginine vasopressin (AVP), CRH plus AVP, and CRH plus metyrapone in patients with Cushing’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:2934–2941[Abstract/Free Full Text]
152. Nieman LK, Cutler Jr GB, Oldfield EH, Loriaux DL, Chrousos GP 1989 The ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) stimulation test is superior to the human CRH stimulation test for the diagnosis of Cushing’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 69:165–169[Abstract/Free Full Text]
153. Muller OA, Stalla GK, von Werder K 1987 CRH in Cushing’s syndrome. Horm Metab Res Suppl 16:51–58[Medline]
154. Orth DN 1992 Corticotropin-releasing hormone in humans. Endocr Rev 13:164–191[Abstract/Free Full Text]
155. Trainer PJ, Faria M, Newell-Price J, Browne P, Kopelman P, Coy DH, Besser GM, Grossman AB 1995 A comparison of the effects of human and ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone on the pituitary-adrenal axis. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:412–417[Abstract]
156. Nieman LK, Oldfield EH, Wesley R, Chrousos GP, Loriaux DL, Cutler Jr GB 1993 A simplified morning ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test for the differential diagnosis of adrenocorticotropin-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 77:1308–1312[Abstract]
157. Gold PW, Loriaux DL, Roy A, Kling MA, Calabrese JR, Kellner CH, Nieman LK, Post RM, Pickar D, Gallucci W, Avgerinos P, Paul S, Oldfield EH, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP 1986 Responses to corticotropin-releasing hormone in the hypercortisolism of depression and Cushing’s disease. Pathophysiologic and diagnostic implications. N Engl J Med 314:1329–1335[Abstract]
158. Nieman LK, Chrousos GP, Oldfield EH, Avgerinos PC, Cutler Jr GB Loriaux DL 1986 The ovine corticotropin-releasing hormone stimulation test and the dexamethasone suppression test in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Ann Intern Med 105:862–867
159. Chrousos GP, Schuermeyer TH, Doppman J, Oldfield EH, Schulte HM, Gold PW, Loriaux DL 1985 NIH conference. Clinical applications of corticotropin-releasing factor. Ann Intern Med 102:344–358
160. von Werder K, Muller OA 1985 Corticotropin- and growth hormone-releasing factor (CRF and GRF) in the diagnosis of hypothalamo-pituitary diseases. Neurosurg Rev 8:155–165[CrossRef][Medline]
161. Orth DN, DeBold CR, DeCherney GS, Jackson RV, Alexander AN, Rivier J, Rivier C, Spiess J, Vale W 1982 Pituitary microadenomas causing Cushing’s disease respond to corticotropin-releasing factor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 55:1017–1019[Abstract/Free Full Text]
162. Fukata J, Nakai Y, Imura H, Abe K, Aono T, Demura H, Fujita T, Hibi I, Ibayashi H, Igarashi M, Irie M, Izumi K, Kageyama N, Kato K, Kumahara Y, Matsuzaki F, Matsukura S, Miyai K, Mori S, Nakagawa K, Nakajima H, Niimi M, Ogata E, Saito S, Shimizu N, Shizume K, Takahara J, Takakura K, Tomita A, Uozumi T, Wakabayashi I, Yanaihara N, Yoshimi T, Yoshinaga K 1988 Human corticotropin-releasing hormone test in normal subjects and patients with hypothalamic, pituitary or adrenocortical disorders. Endocrinol Jpn 35:491–502[Medline]
163. Tanaka T, Hibi I, Shimizu N, Imura H, Tanaka K, Fukata J, Fujieda K, Ichimura T, Kuribayashi T, Ito K, Suwa S, Tachnibana K, Kato K, Ohta M, Yanaihara N 1993 Evaluation of hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical function in children by human corticotropin-releasing hormone (MCI-028) test. Endocr J 40:581–589[Medline]
164. Fukata J, Shimizu N, Imura H, Hibi I, Tanaka K, Tanaka T, Nakagawa S, Takebe K, Kimura K, Yoshinaga K, Takakura K, Demura H, Irie M, Miyachi Y, Yanaihara N, Yoshimi T, Miura K, Kuwayama A, Ota Z, Kato Y, Saito S, Takahara J, Hashimoto K, Namata H, Matsukura S 1993 Human corticotropin-releasing hormone test in patients with hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical disorders. Endocr J 40:597–606[Medline]
165. Tanaka K, Shimizu N, Imura H, Fukata J, Hibi I, Tanaka T, Nakagawa S, Fujieda K, Takebe K, Yoshinaga K, Suwa S, Tachibana K, Kato K, Ohta M, Yanaihara N 1993 Human corticotropin-releasing hormone (hCRH) test: sex and age differences in plasma ACTH and cortisol responses and their reproducibility in healthy adults. Endocr J 40:571–579[Medline]
166. Malchoff CD, Orth DN, Abboud C, Carney JA, Pairolero PC, Carey RM 1988 Ectopic ACTH syndrome caused by a bronchial carcinoid tumor responsive to dexamethasone, metyrapone, and corticotropin-releasing factor. Am J Med 84:760–764[CrossRef][Medline]
167. DeBold CR, Sheldon WR, DeCherney GS, Jackson RV, Alexander AN, Vale W, Rivier J, Orth DN 1984 Arginine vasopressin potentiates adrenocorticotropin release induced by ovine corticotropin-releasing factor. J Clin Invest 73:533–538
168. Lamberts SW, Verleun T, Oosterom R, de Jong F, Hackeng WH 1984 Corticotropin-releasing factor (ovine) and vasopressin exert a synergistic effect on adrenocorticotropin release in man. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 58:298–303[Abstract/Free Full Text]
169. De Keyzer Y, Auzan C, Lenne F, Beldjord C, Thibonnier M, Bertagna X, Clauser E 1994 Cloning and characterization of the human V3 pituitary vasopressin receptor. FEBS Lett 356:215–220[CrossRef][Medline]
170. Sugimoto T, Saito M, Mochizuki S, Watanabe Y, Hashimoto S, Kawashima H 1994 Molecular cloning and functional expression of a cDNA encoding the human V1b vasopressin receptor. J Biol Chem 269:27088–27092[Abstract/Free Full Text]
171. Landon J, James VH, Stoker DJ 1965 Plasma-cortisol response to lysine-vasopressin. Comparison with other tests of human pituitary-adrenocortical function. Lancet 2:1156–1159[Medline]
172. Croughs RJ 1970 Use of lysin-vasopressin in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 65:595–607[Abstract/Free Full Text]
173. Webb-Peploe MM, Spathis GS, Reed PI 1967 Cushing’s syndrome: use of lysine vasopressin to distinguish overproduction of corticotrophin by pituitary from other causes of adrenal cortical hyperfunction. Lancet 1:195–197[CrossRef][Medline]
174. Tucci JR, Espiner EA, Jagger PI, Lauler DP, Thorn GW 1968 Vasopressin in the evaluation of pituitary-adrenal function. Ann Intern Med 69:191–202
175. Bethge H, Bayer JM, Winkelmann W 1969 Diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. The differentiation between adrenocortical hyperplasia and adrenocrotical adenoma by means of lysine-vasopressin. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 60:47–59[Abstract/Free Full Text]
176. Coslovsky R, Wajchenberg BL, Nogueira O 1974 Hyperresponsiveness to lysine-vasopressin in Cushing’s disease. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 75:125–132[Abstract/Free Full Text]
177. Krieger DT, Luria M 1977 Plasma ACTH and cortisol responses to TRF, vasopressin or hypoglycemia in Cushing’s disease and Nelson’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 44:361–368[Abstract/Free Full Text]
178. Raux MC, Binoux M, Luton JP, Gourmelen M, Girard F 1975 Studies of ACTH secretion control in 116 cases of Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 40:186–197[Abstract/Free Full Text]
179. Catania A, Cantalamessa L, Orsatti A, Mosca G, Minonzio F, Motta P, Reschini E, Zanussi C 1984 Plasma ACTH-response to the corticotropin releasing factor in patients with Cushing’s disease. Comparison with the lysine-vasopressin test. Metabolism 33:478–481[CrossRef][Medline]
180. Tabarin A, San Galli F, Dezou S, Leprat F, Corcuff JB, Latapie JL, Guerin J, Roger P 1990 The corticotropin-releasing factor test in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome: a comparison with the lysine-vasopressin test. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 123:331–338[Abstract/Free Full Text]
181. Bertagna X, Coste J, Raux-Demay MC, Letrait M, Strauch G 1994 The combined corticotropin-releasing hormone/lysine vasopressin test discloses a corticotroph phenotype. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 79:390–394[Abstract]
182. Favrod-Coune C, Raux-Demay MC, Proeschel MF, Bertagna X, Girard F, Luton JP 1993 Potentiation of the classic ovine corticotrophin releasing hormone stimulation test by the combined administration of small doses of lysine vasopressin. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 38:405–410[Medline]
183. Edwards CR, Kitau MJ, Chard T, Besser GM 1973 Vasopressin analogue DDAVP in diabetes insipidus: clinical and laboratory studies. Br Med J 3:375–378
184. Sawyer WH, Acosta M, Manning M 1974 Structural changes in the arginine vasopressin molecule that prolong its antidiuretic action. Endocrinology 95:140–149[Abstract/Free Full Text]
185. Gaillard RC, Riondel AM, Ling N, Muller AF 1988 Corticotropin releasing factor activity of CRF 41 in normal man is potentiated by angiotensin II and vasopressin but not by desmopressin. Life Sci 43:1935–1344[CrossRef][Medline]
186. Malerbi DA, Mendonca BB, Liberman B, Toledo SP, Corradini MC, Cunha-Neto MB, Fragoso MC, Wajchenberg BL 1993 The desmopressin stimulation test in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 38:463–472[Medline]
187. Newell-Price J, Perry L, Medbak S, Monson J, Savage M, Besser M, Grossman A 1997 A combined test using desmopressin and corticotropin-releasing hormone in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:176–181[Abstract/Free Full Text]
188. Colombo P, Passini E, Re T, Faglia G, Ambrosi B 1997 Effect of desmopressin on ACTH and cortisol secretion in states of ACTH excess. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 46:661–668[CrossRef][Medline]
189. Arlt W, Dahia PL, Callies F, Nordmeyer JP, Allolio B, Grossman AB, Reincke M 1997 Ectopic ACTH production by a bronchial carcinoid tumour responsive to desmopressin in vivo and in vitro. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 47:623–627[CrossRef][Medline]
190. De Keyzer Y, Lenne F, Auzan C, Jegou S, Rene P, Vaudry H, Kuhn JM, Luton JP, Clauser E, Bertagna X 1996 The pituitary V3 vasopressin receptor and the corticotroph phenotype in ectopic ACTH syndrome. J Clin Invest 97:1311–1318[Medline]
191. Dahia PL, Ahmed-Shuaib A, Jacobs RA, Chew SL, Honegger J, Fahlbusch R, Besser GM, Grossman AB 1996 Vasopressin receptor expression and mutation analysis in corticotropin-secreting tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:1768–1771[Abstract]
192. Newell-Price J 1997 The desmopressin test and Cushing’s syndrome: current state of play. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 47:173–174[Medline]
193. Ghigo E, Arvat E, Ramunni J, Colao A, Gianotti L, Deghenghi R, Lombardi G, Camanni F 1997 Adrenocorticotropin- and cortisol-releasing effect of hexarelin, a synthetic growth hormone-releasing peptide, in normal subjects and patients with Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 82:2439–2444[Abstract/Free Full Text]
194. de Keyzer Y, Lenne F, Bertagna X 1997 Widespread transcription of the growth hormone-releasing peptide receptor gene in neuroendocrine human tumors. Eur J Endocrinol 137:715–718[Abstract]
195. Korbonits M, Jacobs RA, Aylwin SJ, Burrin JM, Dahia PL, Monson JP, Honegger J, Fahlbusch R, Trainer PJ, Chew SL, Besser GM, Grossman AB Expression of the hormone secretagogue receptor in pituitary and other neuroendocrine tumors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 83:3624–3630
196. Hall WA, Luciano MG, Doppman JL, Patronas NJ, Oldfield EH 1994 Pituitary magnetic resonance imaging in normal human volunteers: occult adenomas in the general population. Ann Intern Med 120:817–820[Abstract/Free Full Text]
197. Dwyer AJ, Frank JA, Doppman JL, Oldfield EH, Hickey AM, Cutler GB, Loriaux DL, Schiable TF 1987 Pituitary adenomas in patients with Cushing disease: initial experience with Gd-DTPA-enhanced MR imaging. Radiology 163:421–426[Abstract/Free Full Text]
198. Doppman JL, Frank JA, Dwyer AJ, Oldfield EH, Miller DL, Nieman LK, Chrousos GP, Cutler Jr GB, Loriaux DL 1988 Gadolinium DTPA enhanced MR imaging of ACTH-secreting microadenomas of the pituitary gland. J Comput Assist Tomogr 12:728–735[Medline]
199. Corrigan DF, Schaaf M, Whaley RA, Czerwinski CL, Earll JM 1977 Selective venous sampling to differentiate ectopic ACTH secretion from pituitary Cushing’s syndrome. N Engl J Med 296:861–862[Medline]
200. Miller DL, Doppman JL 1991 Petrosal sinus sampling: technique and rationale. Radiology 178:37–47[Abstract/Free Full Text]
201. Doppman JL, Oldfield E, Krudy AG, Chrousos GP, Schulte HM, Schaaf M, Loriaux DL 1984 Petrosal sinus sampling for Cushing syndrome: anatomical and technical considerations. Work in progress. Radiology 150:99–103[Abstract/Free Full Text]
202. Findling JW, Aron DC, Tyrrell JB, Shinsako JH, Fitzgerald PA, Norman D, Wilson CB, Forsham PH 1981 Selective venous sampling for ACTH in Cushing’s syndrome: differentiation between Cushing disease and the ectopic ACTH syndrome. Ann Intern Med 94:647–652
203. Drury PL, Ratter S, Tomlin S, Williams J, Dacie JE, Rees LH, Besser GM 1982 Experience with selective venous sampling in diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. Br Med J 284:9–12
204. Manni A, Latshaw RF, Page R, Santen RJ 1983 Simultaneous bilateral venous sampling for adrenocorticotropin in pituitary-dependent Cushing’s disease: evidence for lateralization of pituitary venous drainage. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 57:1070–1073[Abstract/Free Full Text]
205. Grant SJ, Stiel JN, Sorby WA, Henniker AJ 1983 Venous ACTH sampling in Cushing’s syndrome. Med J Aust 1:336–337[Medline]
206. Oldfield EH, Chrousos GP, Schulte HM, Schaaf M, McKeever PE, Krudy AG, Cutler Jr GB, Loriaux DL, Doppman JL 1985 Preoperative lateralization of ACTH-secreting pituitary microadenomas by bilateral and simultaneous inferior petrosal venous sinus sampling. N Engl J Med 312:100–103[Medline]
207. Cuneo R, Ross D, MacFarlane M, Espiner E, Donald RA 1985 Sequential inferior petrosal venous sampling for Cushing’s disease. N Engl J Med 313:582[Medline]
208. Schulte HM, Allolio B, Gunther RW, Benker G, Winkelmann W, Hollmann JP, Windeck R, Reinwein D 1987 Simultaneous bilateral catheterization of the inferior petrosal sinus in Cushing’s syndrome. ACTH determination for the diagnosis and location of the side of a hypophyseal microadenoma before and after administration of corticotropin-releasing hormone. [German]. Dtsch Med Wochenschr 112:1767–1771[Medline]
209. Crock PA, Pestell RG, Calenti AJ, Gilford EJ, Henderson JK, Best JD, Alford FP 1988 Multiple pituitary hormone gradients from inferior petrosal sinus sampling in Cushing’s disease. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 119:75–80[Abstract/Free Full Text]
210. McCance DR, McIlrath E, McNeill A, Gordon DS, Hadden DR, Kennedy L, Sheridan B, Atkinson AB 1989 Bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling as a routine procedure in ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 30:157–166[Medline]
211. Oldfield EH, Doppman JL, Nieman LK, Chrousos GP, Miller DL, Katz DA, Cutler Jr GB, Loriaux DL 1991 Petrosal sinus sampling with and without corticotropin-releasing hormone for the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. N Engl J Med 325:897–905[Abstract]
212. Colao A, Merola B, Spaziante R, La Tessa G, Boudouresque F, Oliver C, Lombardi G 1992 Adrenocorticotropic hormone and beta-endorphin concentrations in the inferior petrosal sinuses in Cushing’s disease and other pituitary diseases. J Endocrinol Invest 15:807–813[Medline]
213. McNally PG, Bolia A, Absalom SR, Falconer-Smith J, Howlett TA 1993 Preliminary observations using endocrine markers of pituitary venous dilution during bilateral simultaneous inferior petrosal sinus catheterization in Cushing’s syndrome: is combined CRF and TRH stimulation of value? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 39:681–686[Medline]
214. Snow RB, Patterson Jr RH, Horwith M, Saint Louis L, Fraser RA 1988 Usefulness of preoperative inferior petrosal vein sampling in Cushing’s disease. Surg Neurol 29:17–21[CrossRef][Medline]
215. Landolt AM, Schubiger O, Maurer R, Girard J 1994 The value of inferior petrosal sinus sampling in diagnosis and treatment of Cushing’s disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 40:485–492[Medline]
216. de Herder WW, Uitterlinden P, Pieterman H, Tanghe HL, Kwekkeboom DJ, Pols HA, Singh R, van de Berge JH, Lamberts SW 1994 Pituitary tumour localization in patients with Cushing’s disease by magnetic resonance imaging. Is there a place for petrosal sinus sampling? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 40:87–92[Medline]
217. Lopez J, Barcelo B, Lucas T, Salame F, Alameda C, Boronat M, Salto L, Estrada J 1996 Petrosal sinus sampling for diagnosis of Cushing’s disease: evidence of false negative results. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 45:147–156[CrossRef][Medline]
218. Hana V, Krsek M, Bohutova J, Marek J 1996 Determination of ACTH in the inferior petrosal sinuses in the examination of patients with hypercortisolism. [Czech]. Cas Lek Cesk 135:683–686[Medline]
219. Tabarin A, Greselle JF, San-Galli F, Leprat F, Caille JM, Latapie JL, Guerin J, Roger P 1991 Usefulness of the corticotropin-releasing hormone test during bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling for the diagnosis of Cushing’s disease. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 73:53–59[Abstract/Free Full Text]
220. Landolt AM, Valavanis A, Girard J, Eberle AN 1986 Corticotrophin-releasing factor-test used with bilateral, simultaneous inferior petrosal sinus blood-sampling for the diagnosis of pituitary-dependent Cushing’s disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 25:687–696[Medline]
221. Colao A, Merola B, Tripodi FS, Di Sarno A, Esposito V, Marzullo P, La Tessa G, Spaziante R, Lombardi G 1993 Simultaneous and bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling for the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome: comparison of multihormonal assay, baseline multiple sampling and ACTH-releasing hormone test. Horm Res 40:209–216[Medline]
222. Cuneo RC, Lee W, Harper J, Mitchell K, Ward G, Atkinson RL, Salkield I, Cameron DP 1997 Metyrapone pre-treated inferior petrosal sinus sampling in the differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 46:607–618[CrossRef][Medline]
223. Boscaro M, Rampazzo A, Paoletta A, Roseano P, Pagotto U, Fallo F, Sonino N 1992 Selective venous sampling in the differential diagnosis of ACTH-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. Neuroendocrinology 55:264–268[CrossRef][Medline]
224. Heppner C, Becker K, Saeger W, Gunther RW, Allolio B, Krone W, Winkelmann W 1997 Occult eutopic Cushing’s syndrome-failure of simultaneous bilateral petrosal sinus sampling to diagnose pituitary-dependent Cushing’s syndrome. Eur J Endocrinol 137:74–78[Abstract]
225. Yamamoto Y, Davis DH, Nippoldt TB, Young Jr WF, Huston III J, Parisi J E 1995 False-positive inferior petrosal sinus sampling in the diagnosis of Cushing’s disease. Report of two cases. J Neurosurg 83:1087–1091[Medline]
226. Yanovski JA, Cutler Jr GB, Doppman JL, Miller DL, Chrousos GP, Oldfield EH, Nieman LK 1993 The limited ability of inferior petrosal sinus sampling with corticotropin-releasing hormone to distinguish Cushing’s disease from pseudo-Cushing states or normal physiology. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 77:503–509[Abstract]
227. Seyer H, Honegger J, Schott W, Kuchle M, Huk WJ, Fahlbusch R, Frisch H 1994 Raymond’s syndrome following petrosal sinus sampling. Acta Neurochir (Wien) 131:157–159[CrossRef][Medline]
228. Sturrock ND, Jeffcoate WJ 1997 A neurological complication of inferior petrosal sinus sampling during investigation for Cushing’s disease: a case report. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 62:527–528[Abstract/Free Full Text]
229. Miller DL, Doppman JL, Peterman SB, Nieman LK, Oldfield EH, Chang R 1992 Neurologic complications of petrosal sinus sampling. Radiology 185:143–147[Abstract/Free Full Text]
230. Schulte HM, Allolio B, Gunther RW, Benker G, Windeck R, Winkelmann W, Reinwein D 1987 Bilateral and simultaneous sinus petrosus inferior catheterization in patients with Cushing’s syndrome: plasma-immunoreactive-ACTH-concentrations before and after administration of CRF. Horm Metab Res Suppl 16:66–67[Medline]
231. Tabarin A, Corcuff JB, Rashedi M, Angibeau R, Caille JM, Ducassou D, Dufy B, Roger P 1992 Multihormonal response to corticotropin-releasing hormone in inferior petrosal sinus blood of one patient with Cushing’s disease: comparison with in vitro secretion of the tumoral corticotropes. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh) 127:284–288[Abstract/Free Full Text]
232. Zarrilli L, Colao A, Merola B, La Tessa G, Spaziante R, Tripodi FS, Di Sarno A, Marzano LA, Lombardi G 1995 Corticotropin-releasing hormone test: improvement of the diagnostic accuracy of simultaneous and bilateral inferior petrosal sinus sampling in patients with Cushing syndrome. World J Surg 19:150–153[CrossRef][Medline]
233. Boolell M, Gilford E, Arnott R, McNeill P, Cummins J, Alford F 1990 An overview of bilateral synchronous inferior petrosal sinus sampling (BSIPSS) in the pre-operative assessment of Cushing’s disease. Aust N Z J Med 20:765–770[Medline]
234. Vignati F, Berselli ME, Scialfa G, Boccardi E, Loli P 1989 Bilateral and simultaneous venous sampling of inferior petrosal sinuses for ACTH and PRL determination: preoperative localization of ACTH-secreting microadenomas. J Endocrinol Invest 12:235–238[Medline]
235. Mampalam TJ, Wilson CB 1988 Transsphenoidal microsurgery for Cushing’s disease. A report of 216 cases. Ann Intern Med 109:487–493
236. Doppman JL, Nieman LK, Chang R, Yanovski J, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP, Oldfield EH 1995 Selective venous sampling from the cavernous sinuses is not a more reliable technique than sampling from the inferior petrosal sinuses in Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 80:2485–2489[Abstract]
237. Miller DL, Doppman JL, Nieman LK, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos G, Loriaux DL, Oldfield EH 1990 Petrosal sinus sampling: discordant lateralization of ACTH-secreting pituitary microadenomas before and after stimulation with corticotropin-releasing hormone. Radiology 176:429–431[Abstract/Free Full Text]
238. Doppman JL 1994 Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy and the ectopic ACTH syndrome–the solution or just another test? Am J Med 96:303–304[CrossRef][Medline]
239. Strack TR, Schild HH, Bohl J, Beyer J, Schrezemeir J, Kahaly G 1993 Selective bilateral blood sampling from the inferior petrosal sinus in Cushing’s disease: effects of corticotropin-releasing factor and thyrotropin-releasing hormone on pituitary secretion. Cardiovasc Intervent Radiol 16:287–292[Medline]
240. Kalogeras KT, Nieman LK, Friedman TC, Doppman JL, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP, Wilder RL, Gold PW, Yanovski JA 1996 Inferior petrosal sinus sampling in healthy subjects reveals a unilateral corticotropin-releasing hormone-induced arginine vasopressin release associated with ipsilateral adrenocorticotropin secretion. J Clin Invest 97:2045–2050[Medline]
241. Mamelak AN, Dowd CF, Tyrrell JB, McDonald JF, Wilson CB 1996 Venous angiography is needed to interpret inferior petrosal sinus and cavernous sinus sampling data for lateralizing adrenocorticotropin-secreting adenomas. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:475–481[Abstract]
242. Teramoto A, Nemoto S, Takakura K, Sasaki Y, Machida T 1993 Selective venous sampling directly from cavernous sinus in Cushing’s syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 76:637–641[Abstract]
243. Vandorpe RA, Fox AJ, Pelz DM, Lee DH 1994 Direct sampling of the cavernous sinus in Cushing’s disease. Can Assoc Radiol J 45:234–237[Medline]
244. Doppman JL, Pass HI, Nieman LK, Miller DL, Chang R, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP, Jaffe GS, Norton JA 1992 Corticotropin-secreting carcinoid tumors of the thymus: diagnostic unreliability of thymic venous sampling. Radiology 184:71–74[Abstract/Free Full Text]
245. Doppman JL, Pass HI, Nieman L, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP, Loriaux DL 1989 Failure of bronchial lavage to detect elevated levels of adrenocorticotropin (ACTH) in patients with ACTH-producing bronchial carcinoids. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 69:1302–1304[Abstract/Free Full Text]
246. Teding van Berkhout F, Croughs RJ, Kater L, Schuurman HJ, Gmelig Meyling FJ, Kooyman CD, van der Gaag RD, Jolink D, Drexhage HA 1986 Familial Cushing’s syndrome due to nodular adrenocortical dysplasia. A putative receptor-antibody disease? Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 24:299–310[Medline]
247. Young Jr WF, Carney JA, Musa BU, Wulffraat NM, Lens JW, Drexhage HA 1989 Familial Cushing’s syndrome due to primary pigmented nodular adrenocortical disease. Reinvestigation 50 years later. N Engl J Med 321:1659–1664[Medline]
248. Aiba M, Hirayama A, Iri H, Kodama T, Fujimoto Y, Kusakabe K, Akama H, Murai M, Tazaki H 1990 Primary adrenocortical micronodular dysplasia: enzyme histochemical and ultrastructural studies of two cases with a review of the literature. Hum Pathol 21:503–511[CrossRef][Medline]
249. Carney JA, Gordon H, Carpenter PC, Shenoy BV, Go VL 1985 The complex of myxomas, spotty pigmentation, and endocrine overactivity. Medicine (Baltimore) 64:270–283[Medline]
250. Stratakis CA, Carney JA, Lin JP, Papanicolaou DA, Karl M, Kastner DL, Pras E, Chrousos GP 1996 Carney complex, a familial multiple neoplasia and lentiginosis syndrome. Analysis of 11 kindreds and linkage to the short arm of chromosome 2. J Clin Invest 97:699–705[Medline]
251. Marcovitz S, Wee R, Chan J, Hardy J 1987 The diagnostic accuracy of preoperative CT scanning in the evaluation of pituitary ACTH-secreting adenomas. AJR Am J Roentgenol 149:803–806[Abstract/Free Full Text]
252. Buchfelder M, Nistor R, Fahlbusch R, Huk WJ 1993 The accuracy of CT and MR evaluation of the sella turcica for detection of adrenocorticotropic hormone-secreting adenomas in Cushing disease. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 14:1183–1190[Abstract]
253. Newton DR, Dillon WP, Norman D, Newton TH, Wilson CB 1989 Gd-DTPA-enhanced MR imaging of pituitary adenomas. AJNR Am J Neuroradiol 10:949–954[Abstract]
254. Peck WW, Dillon WP, Norman D, Newton TH, Wilson CB 1989 High-resolution MR imaging of pituitary microadenomas at 1.5 T: experience with Cushing disease. AJR Am J Roentgenol 152:145–151[Abstract/Free Full Text]
255. Escourolle H, Abecassis JP, Bertagna X, Guilhaume B, Pariente D, Derome P, Bonnin A, Luton JP 1993 Comparison of computerized tomography and magnetic resonance imaging for the examination of the pituitary gland in patients with Cushing’s disease. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 39:307–313[Medline]
256. Burrow GN, Wortzman G, Rewcastle NB, Holgate RC, Kovacs K 1981 Microadenomas of the pituitary and abnormal sellar tomograms in an unselected autopsy series. N Engl J Med 304:156–158[Medline]
257. Barrou Z, Abecassis JP, Guilhaume B, Thomopoulos P, Bertagna X, Derome P, Bonnin A, Luton JP 1997 Magnetic resonance imaging in Cushing disease. Prediction of surgical results. [French]. Presse Med 26:7–11
258. Doppman JL, Ram Z, Shawker TH, Oldfield EH 1994 Intraoperative US of the pituitary gland. Work in progress. Radiology 192:111–115[Abstract/Free Full Text]
259. Ram Z, Shawker TH, Bradford MH, Doppman JL, Oldfield EH 1995 Intraoperative ultrasound-directed resection of pituitary tumors. J Neurosurg 83:225–230[Medline]
260. Fig LM, Gross MD, Shapiro B, Ehrmann DA, Freitas JE, Schteingart DE, Glazer GM, Francis IR 1988 Adrenal localization in the adrenocorticotropic hormone-independent Cushing syndrome. Ann Intern Med 109:547–553
261. Doppman JL, Miller DL, Dwyer AJ, Loughlin T, Nieman L, Cutler GB, Chrousos GP, Oldfield E, Loriaux DL 1988 Macronodular adrenal hyperplasia in Cushing disease. Radiology 166:347–352[Abstract/Free Full Text]
262. Doppman JL, Nieman L, Miller DL, Pass HI, Chang R, Cutler Jr GB, Schaaf M, Chrousos GP, Norton JA, Ziessman HA, Oldfield EH, Loriaux DL 1989 Ectopic adrenocorticotropic hormone syndrome: localization studies in 28 patients. Radiology 172:115–124[Abstract/Free Full Text]
263. White FE, White MC, Drury PL, Fry IK, Besser GM 1982 Value of computed tomography of the abdomen and chest in investigation of Cushing’s syndrome. Br Med J 284:771–774
264. Doppman JL, Pass HI, Nieman LK, Findling JW, Dwyer AJ, Feuerstein IM, Ling A, Travis WD, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP, Loriaux DL 1991 Detection of ACTH-producing bronchial carcinoid tumors: MR imaging vs. CT. AJR Am J Roentgenol 156:39–43[Abstract/Free Full Text]
265. Doppman JL, Nieman LK, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP, Fraker DL, Norton JA, Jensen RT 1994 Adrenocorticotropic hormone-secreting islet cell tumors: are they always malignant? Radiology 190:59–64[Abstract/Free Full Text]
266. Reubi JC, Kvols LK, Waser B, Nagorney DM, Heitz PU, Charboneau JW, Reading CC, Moertel C 1990 Detection of somatostatin receptors in surgical and percutaneous needle biopsy samples of carcinoids and islet cell carcinomas. Cancer Res 50:5969–5977[Abstract/Free Full Text]
267. Phlipponneau M, Nocaudie M, Epelbaum J, De Keyzer Y, Lalau JD, Marchandise X, Bertagna X 1994 Somatostatin analogs for the localization and preoperative treatment of an adrenocorticotropin-secreting bronchial carcinoid tumor. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:20–24[Abstract]
268. de Herder WW, Krenning EP, Malchoff CD, Hofland LJ, Reubi JC, Kwekkeboom DJ, Oei HY, Pols HA, Bruining HA, Nobels FR, Lamberts SW 1994 Somatostatin receptor scintigraphy: its value in tumor localization in patients with Cushing’s syndrome caused by ectopic corticotropin or corticotropin-releasing hormone secretion. Am J Med 96:305–312[CrossRef][Medline]
269. de Lange P, Koper JW, Huizenga NA, Brinkmann AO, de Jong FH, Karl M, Chrousos GP, Lamberts SW 1997 Differential hormone-dependent transcriptional activation and repression by naturally occurring human glucocorticoid receptor variants. Mol Endocrinol 11:1156–1164[Abstract/Free Full Text]
270. Bronnegard M, Stierna P, Marcus C 1996 Glucocorticoid resistant syndromes–molecular basis and clinical presentations. J Neuroendocrinol 8:405–415[CrossRef][Medline]
271. Lamberts SW 1996 The glucocorticoid insensitivity syndrome. Horm Res 45 Suppl 1:2–4
272. Arai K, Chrousos GP 1995 Syndromes of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid resistance. Steroids 60:173–179[CrossRef][Medline]
273. Rupprecht R, Lesch KP, Muller U, Beck G, Beckmann H, Schulte HM 1989 Blunted adrenocorticotropin but normal beta-endorphin release after human corticotropin-releasing hormone administration in depression. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 69:600–603[Abstract/Free Full Text]
274. Tsigos C, Chrousos GP 1996 Differential diagnosis and management of Cushing’s syndrome. Annu Rev Med 47:443–461[CrossRef][Medline]
275. Yanovski JA, Cutler Jr GB, Chrousos GP, Nieman LK Prospective evaluation of the dexamethasone-suppressed corticotropin-releasing hormone test in the differential diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome and pseudo-Cushing’s states. Program of the 77th Annual Meeting of The Endocrine Society, Washington DC, 1995 (Abstract OR 39–2)
276. Contreras P, Araya V 1996 Overnight dexamethasone pre-treatment improves the performance of the lysine-vasopressin test in the diagnosis of Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 44:703–710[CrossRef][Medline]
277. James VH, Landon J, Wynn V, Greenwood FC 1968 A fundamental defect of adrenocortical control in Cushing’s disease. J Endocrinol 40:15–28[Abstract/Free Full Text]
278. Trainer PJ, Besser GM 1995 The Barts Endocrine Protocols. Churchill Livingstone, London, p 4
279. Auernhammer CJ, Stalla GK, Lange M, Pfeiffer A, Muller OA 1992 Effects of loperamide on the human hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal axis in vivo and in vitro. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 75:552–557[Abstract]
280. Ambrosi B, Bochicchio D, Ferrario R, Colombo P, Faglia G 1989 Effects of the opiate agonist loperamide on pituitary-adrenal function in patients with suspected hypercortisolism. J Endocrinol Invest 12:31–35[Medline]
281. Ambrosi B, Colombo P, Bochicchio D, Bassetti M, Masini B, Faglia G 1992 The silent corticotropinoma: is clinical diagnosis possible? J Endocrinol Invest 15:443–452[Medline]
282. Ambrosi B, Bochicchio D, Colombo P, Fadin C, Faglia G 1993 Loperamide to diagnose Cushing’s syndrome. JAMA 270:2301–2302[Abstract/Free Full Text]
283. Bernini GP, Argenio GF, Cerri F, Franchi F 1994 Comparison between the suppressive effects of dexamethasone and loperamide on cortisol and ACTH secretion in some pathological conditions. J Endocrinol Invest 17:799–804[Medline]
284. Jackson RV, Hockings GI, Torpy DJ, Grice JE, Crosbie GV, Walters MM, Strakosch CR 1996 New diagnostic tests for Cushing’s syndrome: uses of naloxone, vasopressin and alprazolam. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 23:579–581[Medline]
285. Torpy DJ, Jackson RV, Grice JE, Hockings GI, Strakosch CR, Topliss D J 1993 Naloxone stimulation of ACTH secretion during petrosal sinus sampling in Cushing’s syndrome. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol 20:299–302[Medline]
286. Malerbi DA, Fragoso MC, Vieira Filho AH, Brenlha EM, Mendonca BB 1996 Cortisol and adrenocorticotropin response to desmopressin in women with Cushing’s disease compared with depressive illness. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 81:2233–2237[Abstract]

This article has been cited by other articles:

				G. Arnaldi, G. Tirabassi, R. Papa, G. Furlani, L. Trementino, M. Cardinaletti, E. Faloia, and M. Boscaro Human corticotropin releasing hormone test performance in the differential diagnosis between Cushing's disease and pseudo-Cushing state is enhanced by combined ACTH and cortisol analysis Eur. J. Endocrinol., June 1, 2009; 160(6): 891 - 898. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				F. Castinetti, M. Martinie, I. Morange, H. Dufour, N. Sturm, J.-G. Passagia, B. Conte-Devolx, O. Chabre, and T. Brue A Combined Dexamethasone Desmopressin Test as an Early Marker of Postsurgical Recurrence in Cushing's Disease J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2009; 94(6): 1897 - 1903. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C. A. Carrasco, J. Coste, L. Guignat, L. Groussin, M. A. Dugue, S. Gaillard, X. Bertagna, and J. Bertherat Midnight Salivary Cortisol Determination for Assessing the Outcome of Transsphenoidal Surgery in Cushing's Disease J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2008; 93(12): 4728 - 4734. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Jehle, J. E. Walsh, P. U. Freda, and K. D. Post Selective Use of Bilateral Inferior Petrosal Sinus Sampling in Patients with Adrenocorticotropin-Dependent Cushing's Syndrome Prior to Transsphenoidal Surgery J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2008; 93(12): 4624 - 4632. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. L. Batista, N. Courcoutsakis, J. Riar, M. F. Keil, and C. A. Stratakis Severe Obesity Confounds the Interpretation of Low-Dose Dexamethasone Test Combined with the Administration of Ovine Corticotrophin-Releasing Hormone in Childhood Cushing Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2008; 93(11): 4323 - 4330. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				P. Burman, A. Lethagen, K. Ivancev, L. Johansson, and A. Sundin Dual bronchial carcinoids and Cushing's syndrome with a paradoxical response to dexamethasone and a false positive outcome of inferior petrosal sinus sampling Eur. J. Endocrinol., October 1, 2008; 159(4): 483 - 488. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. Carneiro, S. M. Togeiro, L. F. Hayashi, F. F. Ribeiro-Filho, A. B. Ribeiro, S. Tufik, and M. T. Zanella Effect of continuous positive airway pressure therapy on hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis function and 24-h blood pressure profile in obese men with obstructive sleep apnea syndrome Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab, August 1, 2008; 295(2): E380 - E384. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				B. M. K. Biller, A. B. Grossman, P. M. Stewart, S. Melmed, X. Bertagna, J. Bertherat, M. Buchfelder, A. Colao, A. R. Hermus, L. J. Hofland, et al. Treatment of Adrenocorticotropin-Dependent Cushing's Syndrome: A Consensus Statement J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., July 1, 2008; 93(7): 2454 - 2462. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. C. Machado, S. Valeria de Sa, M. L. Correa-Giannella, R. R. Giorgi, M. A. A. Pereira, V. A. S Cescato, D. Giannella-Neto, and L. R. Salgado Association between tumoral GH-releasing peptide receptor type 1a mRNA expression and in vivo response to GH-releasing peptide-6 in ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome patients Eur. J. Endocrinol., May 1, 2008; 158(5): 605 - 613. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				L. K. Nieman, B. M. K. Biller, J. W. Findling, J. Newell-Price, M. O. Savage, P. M. Stewart, and V. M. Montori The Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome: An Endocrine Society Clinical Practice Guideline J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., May 1, 2008; 93(5): 1526 - 1540. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Kidambi, H. Raff, and J. W Findling Limitations of nocturnal salivary cortisol and urine free cortisol in the diagnosis of mild Cushing's syndrome Eur. J. Endocrinol., December 1, 2007; 157(6): 725 - 731. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				F. Pecori Giraldi, A. G. Ambrogio, M. De Martin, L. M. Fatti, M. Scacchi, and F. Cavagnini Specificity of First-Line Tests for the Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome: Assessment in a Large Series J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2007; 92(11): 4123 - 4129. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J R Meinardi, B H R Wolffenbuttel, and R P F Dullaart Cyclic Cushing's syndrome: a clinical challenge Eur. J. Endocrinol., September 1, 2007; 157(3): 245 - 254. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				F Castinetti, I Morange, H Dufour, P Jaquet, B Conte-Devolx, N Girard, and T Brue Desmopressin test during petrosal sinus sampling: a valuable tool to discriminate pituitary or ectopic ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome Eur. J. Endocrinol., September 1, 2007; 157(3): 271 - 277. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. L. Batista, J. Riar, M. Keil, and C. A. Stratakis Diagnostic Tests for Children Who Are Referred for the Investigation of Cushing Syndrome Pediatrics, September 1, 2007; 120(3): e575 - e586. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				L. Nieman The Dexamethasone-Suppressed Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Test for the Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome: What Have We Learned in 14 Years? J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2007; 92(8): 2876 - 2878. [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. K. Baid, N. Sinaii, M. Wade, D. Rubino, and L. K. Nieman Radioimmunoassay and Tandem Mass Spectrometry Measurement of Bedtime Salivary Cortisol Levels: A Comparison of Assays to Establish Hypercortisolism J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2007; 92(8): 3102 - 3107. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Tsagarakis, D. Vassiliadi, I. S. Kaskarelis, J. Komninos, E. Souvatzoglou, and N. Thalassinos The Application of the Combined Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone plus Desmopressin Stimulation during Petrosal Sinus Sampling Is Both Sensitive and Specific in Differentiating Patients with Cushing's Disease from Patients with the Occult Ectopic Adrenocorticotropin Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2007; 92(6): 2080 - 2086. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. Munir, F. Song, P. Ince, S. J. Walters, R. Ross, and J. Newell-Price Ineffectiveness of Rosiglitazone Therapy in Nelson's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., May 1, 2007; 92(5): 1758 - 1763. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				L F Chan, H L Storr, P N Plowman, L A Perry, G M Besser, A B Grossman, and M O Savage Long-term anterior pituitary function in patients with paediatric Cushing's disease treated with pituitary radiotherapy Eur. J. Endocrinol., April 1, 2007; 156(4): 477 - 482. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. van der Hoek, S. W J Lamberts, and L. J Hofland Preclinical and clinical experiences with the role of somatostatin receptors in the treatment of pituitary adenomas Eur. J. Endocrinol., April 1, 2007; 156(suppl_1): S45 - S51. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				O. M. Dekkers, N. R. Biermasz, A. M. Pereira, F. Roelfsema, M. O. van Aken, J. H. C. Voormolen, and J. A. Romijn Mortality in Patients Treated for Cushing's Disease Is Increased, Compared with Patients Treated for Nonfunctioning Pituitary Macroadenoma J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2007; 92(3): 976 - 981. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D Vezzosi, D Cartier, C Regnier, P Otal, A Bennet, F Parmentier, M Plantavid, A Lacroix, H Lefebvre, and P Caron Familial adrenocorticotropin-independent macronodular adrenal hyperplasia with aberrant serotonin and vasopressin adrenal receptors Eur. J. Endocrinol., January 1, 2007; 156(1): 21 - 31. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. T. Brady and R. Sinha Co-Occurring Mental and Substance Use Disorders: The Neurobiological Effects of Chronic Stress Focus, January 1, 2007; 5(2): 229 - 239. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				Y. Zhai, H. V. Pai, J. Zhou, J. A. Amico, R. R. Vollmer, and W. Xie Activation of Pregnane X Receptor Disrupts Glucocorticoid and Mineralocorticoid Homeostasis Mol. Endocrinol., January 1, 2007; 21(1): 138 - 147. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. Assie, H. Bahurel, J. Coste, S. Silvera, M. Kujas, M.-A. Dugue, F. Karray, B. Dousset, J. Bertherat, P. Legmann, et al. Corticotroph Tumor Progression after Adrenalectomy in Cushing's Disease: A Reappraisal of Nelson's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., January 1, 2007; 92(1): 172 - 179. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				L. R. Salgado, M. C. B V. Fragoso, M. Knoepfelmacher, M. C. Machado, S. Domenice, M. A. A. Pereira, and B. B. de Mendonca Ectopic ACTH syndrome: our experience with 25 cases. Eur. J. Endocrinol., November 1, 2006; 155(5): 725 - 733. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. Rautanen, J. G. Eriksson, J. Kere, S. Andersson, C. Osmond, P. Tienari, H. Sairanen, D. J. P. Barker, D. I. W. Phillips, T. Forsen, et al. Associations of Body Size at Birth with Late-Life Cortisol Concentrations and Glucose Tolerance Are Modified by Haplotypes of the Glucocorticoid Receptor Gene J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2006; 91(11): 4544 - 4551. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. L. Batista, X. Zhang, R. Gejman, P. J. Ansell, Y. Zhou, S. A. Johnson, B. Swearingen, E. T. Hedley-Whyte, C. A. Stratakis, and A. Klibanski The Effects of SOM230 on Cell Proliferation and Adrenocorticotropin Secretion in Human Corticotroph Pituitary Adenomas J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2006; 91(11): 4482 - 4488. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				C J Peters, H L Storr, A B Grossman, and M O Savage The role of corticotrophin-releasing hormone in the diagnosis of Cushing's syndrome Eur. J. Endocrinol., November 1, 2006; 155(suppl_1): S93 - S98. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. W. Findling and H. Raff Cushing's Syndrome: Important Issues in Diagnosis and Management J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2006; 91(10): 3746 - 3753. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				V. Castillo, D. Giacomini, M. Paez-Pereda, J. Stalla, M. Labeur, M. Theodoropoulou, F. Holsboer, A. B. Grossman, G. K. Stalla, and E. Arzt Retinoic Acid as a Novel Medical Therapy for Cushing's Disease in Dogs Endocrinology, September 1, 2006; 147(9): 4438 - 4444. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				I. S. Kaskarelis, E. G. Tsatalou, S. V. Benakis, K. Malagari, I. Komninos, D. Vasiliadou, S. Tsagarakis, and N. Thalassinos Bilateral inferior petrosal sinuses sampling in the routine investigation of Cushing's syndrome: a comparison with MRI. Am. J. Roentgenol., August 1, 2006; 187(2): 562 - 570. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				N. M. Martin, W. S. Dhillo, A. Banerjee, A. Abdulali, C. N. Jayasena, M. Donaldson, J. F. Todd, and K. Meeran Comparison of the Dexamethasone-Suppressed Corticotropin-Releasing Hormone Test and Low-Dose Dexamethasone Suppression Test in the Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., July 1, 2006; 91(7): 2582 - 2586. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. B. C C. Neto, M. C. Machado, F. Mesquita, N. R. de Castro Musolino, A. C. Toscanini, G. Ochman, V. A. S Cescato, R. Marino Jr, and M. J. Teixeira Thymus hyperplasia after resolution of hypercortisolism in ACTH-dependent Cushing's syndrome: the importance of thymic vein catheterization. Eur. J. Endocrinol., June 1, 2006; 154(6): 807 - 811. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. M. Isidori, G. A. Kaltsas, C. Pozza, V. Frajese, J. Newell-Price, R. H. Reznek, P. J. Jenkins, J. P. Monson, A. B. Grossman, and G. M. Besser The Ectopic Adrenocorticotropin Syndrome: Clinical Features, Diagnosis, Management, and Long-Term Follow-Up J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., February 1, 2006; 91(2): 371 - 377. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. Reimondo, B. Allasino, S. Bovio, P. Paccotti, A. Angeli, and M. Terzolo Evaluation of the effectiveness of midnight serum cortisol in the diagnostic procedures for Cushing's syndrome Eur. J. Endocrinol., December 1, 2005; 153(6): 803 - 809. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				P Haentjens, L De Meirleir, R Abs, J Verhelst, K Poppe, and B Velkeniers Glomerular filtration rate in patients with Cushing's disease: a matched case-control study Eur. J. Endocrinol., December 1, 2005; 153(6): 819 - 829. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. S. Chriguer, L. L. K. Elias, I. M. da Silva Jr., J. G. H. Vieira, A. C. Moreira, and M. de Castro Glucocorticoid Sensitivity in Young Healthy Individuals: in Vitro and in Vivo Studies J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2005; 90(11): 5978 - 5984. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. Viardot, P. Huber, J. J. Puder, H. Zulewski, U. Keller, and B. Muller Reproducibility of Nighttime Salivary Cortisol and Its Use in the Diagnosis of Hypercortisolism Compared with Urinary Free Cortisol and Overnight Dexamethasone Suppression Test J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2005; 90(10): 5730 - 5736. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. T. Brady and R. Sinha Co-Occurring Mental and Substance Use Disorders: The Neurobiological Effects of Chronic Stress Am J Psychiatry, August 1, 2005; 162(8): 1483 - 1493. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				I. Ilias, D. J. Torpy, K. Pacak, N. Mullen, R. A. Wesley, and L. K. Nieman Cushing's Syndrome Due to Ectopic Corticotropin Secretion: Twenty Years' Experience at the National Institutes of Health J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2005; 90(8): 4955 - 4962. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				Y. S. Woo, A. M. Isidori, W. Z. Wat, G. A. Kaltsas, F. Afshar, I. Sabin, P. J. Jenkins, J. P. Monson, G. M. Besser, and A. B. Grossman Clinical and Biochemical Characteristics of Adrenocorticotropin-Secreting Macroadenomas J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2005; 90(8): 4963 - 4969. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				L. J Hofland, J. van der Hoek, R. Feelders, M. O van Aken, P. M van Koetsveld, M. Waaijers, D. Sprij-Mooij, C. Bruns, G. Weckbecker, W. W de Herder, et al. The multi-ligand somatostatin analogue SOM230 inhibits ACTH secretion by cultured human corticotroph adenomas via somatostatin receptor type 5 Eur. J. Endocrinol., April 1, 2005; 152(4): 645 - 654. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. Suri and R. E. Weiss Effect of Pioglitazone on Adrenocorticotropic Hormone and Cortisol Secretion in Cushing's Disease J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2005; 90(3): 1340 - 1346. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. N Bower and L. J Oyen Interaction Between Dexamethasone Treatment and the Corticotropin Stimulation Test in Septic Shock Ann. Pharmacother., February 1, 2005; 39(2): 335 - 338. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				K. Miehle, A. Tannapfel, P. Lamesch, G. Borte, E. Schenker, R. Kluge, R. A. Ott, V. Wiechmann, M. Koch, W. Kassahun, et al. Pancreatic Neuroendocrine Tumor with Ectopic Adrenocorticotropin Production upon Second Recurrence J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2004; 89(8): 3731 - 3736. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. Terzolo, B. Allasino, S. Bosio, E. Brusa, F. Daffara, M. Ventura, E. Aroasio, G. Sacchetto, G. Reimondo, A. Angeli, et al. Hyperhomocysteinemia in Patients with Cushing's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., August 1, 2004; 89(8): 3745 - 3751. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. Yaneva, H. Mosnier-Pudar, M.-A. Dugue, S. Grabar, Y. Fulla, and X. Bertagna Midnight Salivary Cortisol for the Initial Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome of Various Causes J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., July 1, 2004; 89(7): 3345 - 3351. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. Pivonello, D. Ferone, W. W. de Herder, J. M. Kros, M. L. Del Basso De Caro, M. Arvigo, L. Annunziato, G. Lombardi, A. Colao, L. J. Hofland, et al. Dopamine Receptor Expression and Function in Corticotroph Pituitary Tumors J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., May 1, 2004; 89(5): 2452 - 2462. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. J. Lichtarowicz-Krynska, T. J. Cole, C. Camacho-H""bner, J. Britto, M. Levin, N. Klein, and A. Aynsley-Green Circulating Aldosterone Levels Are Unexpectedly Low in Children with Acute Meningococcal Disease J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2004; 89(3): 1410 - 1414. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. M. Isidori, J. P. Monson, G. M. Besser, and A. B. Grossman Authors' Response: Discriminatory Value of Low-Dose Dexamethasone Suppression Test in Establishing the Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2004; 89(3): 1486 - 1486. [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. G. Rockall, S. A. Babar, S. A. A. Sohaib, A. M. Isidori, S. Diaz-Cano, J. P. Monson, A. B. Grossman, and R. H. Reznek CT and MR Imaging of the Adrenal Glands in ACTH-independent Cushing Syndrome RadioGraphics, March 1, 2004; 24(2): 435 - 452. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. Arnaldi, A. Angeli, A. B. Atkinson, X. Bertagna, F. Cavagnini, G. P. Chrousos, G. A. Fava, J. W. Findling, R. C. Gaillard, A. B. Grossman, et al. Diagnosis and Complications of Cushing's Syndrome: A Consensus Statement J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2003; 88(12): 5593 - 5602. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				B. Catargi, V. Rigalleau, A. Poussin, N. Ronci-Chaix, V. Bex, V. Vergnot, H. Gin, P. Roger, and A. Tabarin Occult Cushing's Syndrome in Type-2 Diabetes J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2003; 88(12): 5808 - 5813. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. M. Pereira, M. O. van Aken, H. van Dulken, P. J. Schutte, N. R. Biermasz, J. W. A. Smit, F. Roelfsema, and J. A. Romijn Long-Term Predictive Value of Postsurgical Cortisol Concentrations for Cure and Risk of Recurrence in Cushing's Disease J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2003; 88(12): 5858 - 5864. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				R. L. Rosenfield, R. B. Barnes, D. A. Ehrmann, and A. Y. Toledano The Value of the Low-Dose Dexamethasone Suppression Test in the Differential Diagnosis of Hyperandrogenism in Women J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2003; 88(12): 6115 - 6115. [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. M. Isidori, G. A. Kaltsas, S. Mohammed, D. G. Morris, P. Jenkins, S. L. Chew, J. P. Monson, G. M. Besser, and A. B. Grossman Discriminatory Value of the Low-Dose Dexamethasone Suppression Test in Establishing the Diagnosis and Differential Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 2003; 88(11): 5299 - 5306. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				P. Putignano, P. Toja, A. Dubini, F. P. Giraldi, S. M. Corsello, and F. Cavagnini Midnight Salivary Cortisol Versus Urinary Free and Midnight Serum Cortisol as Screening Tests for Cushing's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., September 1, 2003; 88(9): 4153 - 4157. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				E. V. Dimaraki and C. A. Jaffe Troglitazone Induces CYP3A4 Activity Leading to Falsely Abnormal Dexamethasone Suppression Test J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., July 1, 2003; 88(7): 3113 - 3116. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				G. A. Kaltsas, A. M. Isidori, B. P. Kola, R. H. Skelly, S. L. Chew, P. J. Jenkins, J. P. Monson, A. B. Grossman, and G. M. Besser The Value of the Low-Dose Dexamethasone Suppression Test in the Differential Diagnosis of Hyperandrogenism in Women J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2003; 88(6): 2634 - 2643. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				P. Loli, F. Vignati, E. Grossrubatscher, P. Dalino, M. Possa, F. Zurleni, G. Lomuscio, O. Rossetti, M. Ravini, A. Vanzulli, et al. Management of Occult Adrenocorticotropin-Secreting Bronchial Carcinoids: Limits of Endocrine Testing and Imaging Techniques J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., March 1, 2003; 88(3): 1029 - 1035. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				V. Lefournier, M. Martinie, A. Vasdev, P. Bessou, J.-G. Passagia, F. Labat-Moleur, N. Sturm, J.-L. Bosson, I. Bachelot, and O. Chabre Accuracy of Bilateral Inferior Petrosal or Cavernous Sinuses Sampling in Predicting the Lateralization of Cushing's Disease Pituitary Microadenoma: Influence of Catheter Position and Anatomy of Venous Drainage J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., January 1, 2003; 88(1): 196 - 203. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				D. A. Papanicolaou, N. Mullen, I. Kyrou, and L. K. Nieman Nighttime Salivary Cortisol: A Useful Test for the Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2002; 87(10): 4515 - 4521. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				J. Newell-Price, D. G. Morris, W. M. Drake, M. Korbonits, J. P. Monson, G. M. Besser, and A. B. Grossman Optimal Response Criteria for the Human CRH Test in the Differential Diagnosis of ACTH-Dependent Cushing's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., April 1, 2002; 87(4): 1640 - 1645. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				S. Tsagarakis, C. Tsigos, V. Vasiliou, P. Tsiotra, J. Kaskarelis, C. Sotiropoulou, S. A. Raptis, and N. Thalassinos The Desmopressin and Combined CRH-Desmopressin Tests in the Differential Diagnosis of ACTH-Dependent Cushing's Syndrome: Constraints Imposed by the Expression of V2 Vasopressin Receptors in Tumors with Ectopic ACTH Secretion J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., April 1, 2002; 87(4): 1646 - 1653. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. Lienhardt, A. B. Grossman, J. E. Dacie, J. Evanson, A. Huebner, F. Afshar, P. N. Plowman, G. M. Besser, and M. O. Savage Relative Contributions of Inferior Petrosal Sinus Sampling and Pituitary Imaging in the Investigation of Children and Adolescents with ACTH-Dependent Cushing's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2001; 86(12): 5711 - 5714. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				N. Hiroi, G. P. Chrousos, B. Kohn, A. Lafferty, M. Abu-Asab, S. Bonat, A. White, and S. R. Bornstein Adrenocortical-Pituitary Hybrid Tumor Causing Cushing's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2001; 86(6): 2631 - 2637. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				M. Korbonits, I. Bujalska, M. Shimojo, J. Nobes, S. Jordan, A. B. Grossman, and P. M. Stewart Expression of 11{beta}-Hydroxysteroid Dehydrogenase Isoenzymes in the Human Pituitary: Induction of the Type 2 Enzyme in Corticotropinomas and Other Pituitary Tumors J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., June 1, 2001; 86(6): 2728 - 2733. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

				A. Lacroix, N. N'Diaye, J. Tremblay, and P. Hamet Ectopic and Abnormal Hormone Receptors in Adrenal Cushing's Syndrome Endocr. Rev., February 1, 2001; 22(1): 75 - 110. [Abstract] [Full Text]

				J. Newell-Price, P. King, and A. J. L. Clark The CpG Island Promoter of the Human Proopiomelanocortin Gene Is Methylated in Nonexpressing Normal Tissue and Tumors and Represses Expression Mol. Endocrinol., February 1, 2001; 15(2): 338 - 348. [Abstract] [Full Text]

				A. White, D. W. Ray, A. Talbot, P. Abraham, A. J. Thody, and J. S. Bevan Cushing's Syndrome Due to Phaeochromocytoma Secreting the Precursors of Adrenocorticotropin J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., December 1, 2000; 85(12): 4771 - 4775. [Abstract] [Full Text]

				M. Moro, P. Putignano, M. Losa, C. Invitti, C. Maraschini, and F. Cavagnini The Desmopressin Test in the Differential Diagnosis between Cushing's Disease and Pseudo-Cushing States J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2000; 85(10): 3569 - 3574. [Abstract] [Full Text]

				M.-C. Lebrethon, A. B. Grossman, F. Afshar, P. N. Plowman, G. M. Besser, and M. O. Savage Linear Growth and Final Height after Treatment for Cushing's Disease in Childhood J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., September 1, 2000; 85(9): 3262 - 3265. [Abstract] [Full Text]

				P. Putignano, G. A. Kaltsas, M. Korbonits, P. J. Jenkins, J. P. Monson, G. M. Besser, and A. B. Grossman Alterations in Serum Protein Levels in Patients with Cushing's Syndrome before and after Successful Treatment J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., September 1, 2000; 85(9): 3309 - 3312. [Abstract] [Full Text]

				G. A. Kaltsas, J. D. C. Newell-Price, P. J. Trainer, G. M. Besser, and A. B. Grossman Complications of Inferior Petrosel Sinus Sampling J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., April 1, 2000; 85(4): 1741 - 1741. [Full Text]

				P. U. Freda and S. L. Wardlaw Diagnosis and Treatment of Pituitary Tumors J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., November 1, 1999; 84(11): 3859 - 3866. [Full Text]

				V. Lefournier, B. Gatta, M. Martinie, A. Vasdev, A. Tabarin, P. Bessou, J. Berge, I. Bachelot, and O. Chabre One Transient Neurological Complication (Sixth Nerve Palsy) in 166 Consecutive Inferior Petrosal Sinus Samplings for the Etiological Diagnosis of Cushing's Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., September 1, 1999; 84(9): 3401 - 3402. [Full Text]

				W. W. de Herder and S. W.J. Lamberts Tumor Localization--The Ectopic ACTH Syndrome J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., April 1, 1999; 84(4): 1184 - 1185. [Full Text]

This Article Abstract Full Text (PDF) Alert me when this article is cited Alert me if a correction is posted Citation Map Services Email this article to a friend Similar articles in this journal Similar articles in PubMed Alert me to new issues of the journal Download to citation manager Request Copyright Permission Citing Articles Citing Articles via HighWire Citing Articles via Google Scholar Google Scholar Articles by Newell-Price, J. Articles by Grossman, A. Search for Related Content PubMed PubMed Citation Articles by Newell-Price, J. Articles by Grossman, A.