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Biology Department, Syracuse University Syracuse, New York 13244
Correspondence: Address reprint requests to: James R. Florini, Ph.D., Biology Department, Syracuse University, 130 College Place, Syracuse, New York, 13244-1220.
Abstract
I. Overview: THE general characterization of the growth hormone/insulin-like growth factor-I (GH/IGF-I) system has been established for a considerable length of time, and we will not repeat the many detailed descriptions of these proteins. Specifics of GH structure and general actions are presented in reviews such as those by Li (1) and by Laron (2). A later review (3) summarizes much of the early literature on biological effects of GH, with some emphasis on effects on isolated muscles. Carter-Su et al. (4, 5) have summarized more recent findings on the mechanisms of GH interactions with its receptor and subsequent intracellular signals; virtually all of this has been done in nonmuscle systems. The induction of hepatic IGF gene expression by GH has been well established for a long time, and we will not cover this area here, as we are concerned with actions of the IGFs rather than their secretion by liver. Information on the structures of the IGFs and their binding proteins, as well as their actions in nonmuscle systems, is presented in a number of recent comprehensive reviews (6–19). For this review, we simply specify that GH is a simple protein (containing only one intrachain S-S bond, and relatively unstable) of 22 kDa, and the IGFs (IGF-I and IGF-II) are single chains with three intrachain disulfides (and quite high stability in neutral or acid conditions) of about 7.5 kDa. In addition, six IGF-specific binding proteins (IGFBP-1 to -6) have been characterized. The IGFBPs include numerous disulfides and are remarkably stable, retaining substantial IGF-binding activity after precipitation with trichloroacetic acid and separation by SDS gel electrophoresis (10). A cartoon summarizing a current view of the GH/IGF system is presented in Fig. 1.
Footnotes
* Preparation of this paper was supported in part by NIH Grant HL-11551.
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M S Pampusch, G Xi, E Kamanga-Sollo, K J Loseth, M R Hathaway, W R Dayton, and M E White Production of recombinant porcine IGF-binding protein-5 and its effect on proliferation of porcine embryonic myoblast cultures in the presence and absence of IGF-I and Long-R3-IGF-I J. Endocrinol., April 1, 2005; 185(1): 197 - 206. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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H. Kim, E. Barton, N. Muja, S. Yakar, P. Pennisi, and D. LeRoith Intact Insulin and Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I Receptor Signaling Is Required for Growth Hormone Effects on Skeletal Muscle Growth and Function in Vivo Endocrinology, April 1, 2005; 146(4): 1772 - 1779. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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O. Schakman, H. Gilson, V. de Coninck, P. Lause, J. Verniers, X. Havaux, J. M. Ketelslegers, and J. P. Thissen Insulin-Like Growth Factor-I Gene Transfer by Electroporation Prevents Skeletal Muscle Atrophy in Glucocorticoid-Treated Rats Endocrinology, April 1, 2005; 146(4): 1789 - 1797. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. E. Spangenburg SOCS-3 Induces Myoblast Differentiation J. Biol. Chem., March 18, 2005; 280(11): 10749 - 10758. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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C. S. Bickel, J. Slade, E. Mahoney, F. Haddad, G. A. Dudley, and G. R. Adams Time course of molecular responses of human skeletal muscle to acute bouts of resistance exercise J Appl Physiol, February 1, 2005; 98(2): 482 - 488. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. Latres, A. R. Amini, A. A. Amini, J. Griffiths, F. J. Martin, Y. Wei, H. C. Lin, G. D. Yancopoulos, and D. J. Glass Insulin-like Growth Factor-1 (IGF-1) Inversely Regulates Atrophy-induced Genes via the Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase/Akt/Mammalian Target of Rapamycin (PI3K/Akt/mTOR) Pathway J. Biol. Chem., January 28, 2005; 280(4): 2737 - 2744. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 Y.-S. Chan, Y. Li, W. Foster, F. H. Fu, and J. Huard The Use of Suramin, an Antifibrotic Agent, to Improve Muscle Recovery After Strain Injury Am. J. Sports Med., January 1, 2005; 33(1): 43 - 51. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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K.-M. V. Lai, M. Gonzalez, W. T. Poueymirou, W. O. Kline, E. Na, E. Zlotchenko, T. N. Stitt, A. N. Economides, G. D. Yancopoulos, and D. J. Glass Conditional Activation of Akt in Adult Skeletal Muscle Induces Rapid Hypertrophy Mol. Cell. Biol., November 1, 2004; 24(21): 9295 - 9304. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. F. C. Heszele and S. R. Price Insulin-Like Growth Factor I: The Yin and Yang of Muscle Atrophy Endocrinology, November 1, 2004; 145(11): 4803 - 4805. [Full Text] [PDF]
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M. Dehoux, R. Van Beneden, N. Pasko, P. Lause, J. Verniers, L. Underwood, J.-M. Ketelslegers, and J.-P. Thissen Role of the Insulin-Like Growth Factor I Decline in the Induction of Atrogin-1/MAFbx during Fasting and Diabetes Endocrinology, November 1, 2004; 145(11): 4806 - 4812. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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N. Tiffin, S. Adi, D. Stokoe, N.-Y. Wu, and S. M. Rosenthal Akt Phosphorylation Is Not Sufficient for Insulin-Like Growth Factor-Stimulated Myogenin Expression but Must Be Accompanied by Down-Regulation of Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase/Extracellular Signal-Regulated Kinase Phosphorylation Endocrinology, November 1, 2004; 145(11): 4991 - 4996. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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A. Natalicchio, L. Laviola, C. De Tullio, L. A. Renna, C. Montrone, S. Perrini, G. Valenti, G. Procino, M. Svelto, and F. Giorgino Role of the p66Shc Isoform in Insulin-like Growth Factor I Receptor Signaling through MEK/Erk and Regulation of Actin Cytoskeleton in Rat Myoblasts J. Biol. Chem., October 15, 2004; 279(42): 43900 - 43909. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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J. G. Esposito, S. G. Thomas, L. Kingdon, and S. Ezzat Growth Hormone Treatment Improves Peripheral Muscle Oxygen Extraction-Utilization during Exercise in Patients with Human Immunodeficiency Virus-Associated Wasting: A Randomized Controlled Trial J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab., October 1, 2004; 89(10): 5124 - 5131. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. B. Roberts, L. A. R. McCauley, R. H. Devlin, and F. W. Goetz Transgenic salmon overexpressing growth hormone exhibit decreased myostatin transcript and protein expression J. Exp. Biol., October 1, 2004; 207(21): 3741 - 3748. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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Y. Kamei, S. Miura, M. Suzuki, Y. Kai, J. Mizukami, T. Taniguchi, K. Mochida, T. Hata, J. Matsuda, H. Aburatani, et al. Skeletal Muscle FOXO1 (FKHR) Transgenic Mice Have Less Skeletal Muscle Mass, Down-regulated Type I (Slow Twitch/Red Muscle) Fiber Genes, and Impaired Glycemic Control J. Biol. Chem., September 24, 2004; 279(39): 41114 - 41123. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 S. Khanna, G. Cheng, B. Gong, M. J. Mustari, and J. D. Porter Genome-Wide Transcriptional Profiles Are Consistent with Functional Specialization of the Extraocular Muscle Layers Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci., September 1, 2004; 45(9): 3055 - 3066. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Mejia-Luna and G. Avila Ca2+ channel regulation by transforming growth factor-{beta}1 and bone morphogenetic protein-2 in developing mice myotubes J. Physiol., August 15, 2004; 559(1): 41 - 54. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 V. Sartorelli and M. Fulco Molecular and Cellular Determinants of Skeletal Muscle Atrophy and Hypertrophy Sci. Signal., August 3, 2004; 2004(244): re11 - re11. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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 T. Shavlakadze, M. Davies, J. D. White, and M. D. Grounds Early Regeneration of Whole Skeletal Muscle Grafts Is Unaffected by Overexpression of IGF-1 in MLC/mIGF-1 Transgenic Mice J. Histochem. Cytochem., July 1, 2004; 52(7): 873 - 883. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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L. Sun, L. Liu, X.-J. Yang, and Z. Wu Akt binds prohibitin 2 and relieves its repression of MyoD and muscle differentiation J. Cell Sci., June 15, 2004; 117(14): 3021 - 3029. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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G. Sorci, F. Riuzzi, C. Arcuri, I. Giambanco, and R. Donato Amphoterin Stimulates Myogenesis and Counteracts the Antimyogenic Factors Basic Fibroblast Growth Factor and S100B via RAGE Binding Mol. Cell. Biol., June 1, 2004; 24(11): 4880 - 4894. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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W. Huygens, M. A. Thomis, M. W. Peeters, J. Aerssens, R. Janssen, R. F. Vlietinck, and G. Beunen Linkage of myostatin pathway genes with knee strength in humans Physiol Genomics, May 19, 2004; 17(3): 264 - 270. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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E. E. Spangenburg, D. K. Bowles, and F. W. Booth Insulin-Like Growth Factor-Induced Transcriptional Activity of the Skeletal {alpha}-Actin Gene Is Regulated by Signaling Mechanisms Linked to Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels during Myoblast Differentiation Endocrinology, April 1, 2004; 145(4): 2054 - 2063. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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D. A. M. Salih, G. Tripathi, C. Holding, T. A. M. Szestak, M. I. Gonzalez, E. J. Carter, L. J. Cobb, J. E. Eisemann, and J. M. Pell Insulin-like growth factor-binding protein 5 (Igfbp5) compromises survival, growth, muscle development, and fertility in mice PNAS, March 23, 2004; 101(12): 4314 - 4319. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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S. Lee, E. R. Barton, H. L. Sweeney, and R. P. Farrar Viral expression of insulin-like growth factor-I enhances muscle hypertrophy in resistance-trained rats J Appl Physiol, March 1, 2004; 96(3): 1097 - 1104. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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X. Wang, S. R. Thomson, J. D. Starkey, J. L. Page, A. D. Ealy, and S. E. Johnson Transforming Growth Factor {beta}1 Is Up-regulated by Activated Raf in Skeletal Myoblasts but Does Not Contribute to the Differentiation-defective Phenotype J. Biol. Chem., January 23, 2004; 279(4): 2528 - 2534. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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F. Haddad and G. R. Adams Inhibition of MAP/ERK kinase prevents IGF-I-induced hypertrophy in rat muscles J Appl Physiol, January 1, 2004; 96(1): 203 - 210. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]
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